%!PS-Adobe-3.0
%%Title: (wxdy.981028.1-spce)
%%Creator: (Microsoft Word: LaserWriter 8 8.4.1)
%%CreationDate: (5:18 PM Wednesday, January 6, 1999)
%%For: (kay)
%%Pages: 60
%%DocumentFonts: Palatino-Roman Palatino-Italic Palatino-Bold Symbol Palatino-BoldItalic
%%DocumentNeededFonts: Palatino-Roman Palatino-Italic Palatino-Bold Symbol Palatino-BoldItalic
%%DocumentSuppliedFonts:
%%DocumentData: Clean7Bit
%%PageOrder: Ascend
%%Orientation: Portrait
%%DocumentMedia: Default 612 792 0 () ()
%ADO_ImageableArea: 30 31 582 761
%%EndComments
userdict/dscInfo 5 dict dup begin
/Title(wxdy.981028.1-spce)def
/Creator(Microsoft Word: LaserWriter 8 8.4.1)def
/CreationDate(5:18 PM Wednesday, January 6, 1999)def
/For(kay)def
/Pages 60 def
end put
/md 221 dict def md begin/currentpacking where {pop /sc_oldpacking currentpacking def true setpacking}if
%%BeginFile: lw8_basic-2.0
%%Copyright: Copyright 1990-1996 Adobe Systems Incorporated and Apple Computer Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.
/bd{bind def}bind def
/xdf{exch def}bd
/xs{exch store}bd
/ld{load def}bd
/Z{0 def}bd
/T/true
/F/false
/:L/lineto
/lw/setlinewidth
/:M/moveto
/rl/rlineto
/rm/rmoveto
/:C/curveto
/:T/translate
/:K/closepath
/:mf/makefont
/gS/gsave
/gR/grestore
/np/newpath
14{ld}repeat
/framewidth -1 def
/QDframwid -1 def
/numframes Z
/mTS matrix def
/$m matrix def
/av 84 def
/por T def
/normland F def
/psb-nosave{}def
/pse-nosave{}def
/us Z
/psb{/us save store}bd
/pse{us restore}bd
/level2
/languagelevel where
{
pop languagelevel 2 ge
}{
F
}ifelse
def
/odictstk Z
/oopstk Z
/fcl
{
count oopstk sub dup 0 gt
{
{pop}repeat
}{
pop
}ifelse
countdictstack odictstk sub dup 0 gt
{
{end}repeat
}{
pop
}ifelse
}bd
/sfcl2
{
/odictstk countdictstack store
count/oopstk xs
}bd
/efcl2
{
stopped{$error/newerror F put}if
fcl
}bd
/noload Z
/startnoload
{
{/noload save store}if
}bd
/endnoload
{
{noload restore}if
}bd
level2 startnoload
/setjob
{
statusdict/jobname 3 -1 roll put
}bd
/setcopies
{
userdict/#copies 3 -1 roll put
}bd
/devg/DeviceGray def
/devr/DeviceRGB def
/devc/DeviceCMYK def
/ststpgdev{}def
/dopgdev{}def
/stpgdev{}def
/buf Z
/didstop T def
/sfcl
{
/didstop T store
/odictstk countdictstack store
count/oopstk xs
currentfile cvx stopped
{
$error/newerror F put
didstop
{
save/didstop xs
/buf vmstatus exch sub exch pop dup 0 lt{pop 0}if
dup 64000 gt{pop 64000}if string store
{
currentfile buf readline
{
(}efcl)eq{exit}if
}{
/UnexpectedEOF errordict/rangecheck get exec
}ifelse
}loop
didstop restore
}if
}if
fcl
}bd
/efcl
{
/didstop F store
exec
stop
}bd
level2 endnoload level2 not startnoload
/setjob
{
1 dict begin/JobName xdf currentdict end setuserparams
}bd
/setcopies
{
1 dict begin/NumCopies xdf currentdict end setpagedevice
}bd
/devg[/DeviceGray]def
/devr[/DeviceRGB]def
/devc[/DeviceCMYK]def
/setpagedevice where{pop/realstpgdev/setpagedevice ld}if
/SC_topddict Z
/SC_spdict Z
/dopgdev
{
md/setpagedevice undef
SC_topddict realstpgdev
}bd
/stpgdev
{
SC_topddict dup 3 -1 roll
{
SC_spdict 2 index known
{
SC_spdict 2 index get
dup 3 -1 roll
{
put dup
}forall
pop put dup
}{
put dup
}ifelse
}forall
pop pop
}bd
/ststpgdev
{
md/setpagedevice/stpgdev load put
/SC_topddict 0 dict store
/SC_spdict 3 dict begin
/InputAttributes 0 dict def
/Policies 0 dict def
/OutputAttributes 0 dict def
currentdict
end
store
}def
/sfcl/sfcl2 ld
/efcl/efcl2 ld
level2 not endnoload
/pm Z
/mT Z
/sD Z
/realshowpage Z
/initializepage
{
mT $m currentmatrix mTS concatmatrix pop
/pm save store mT concat
}bd
/endp
{
pm restore
}bd
/adjRect
{
dup 2 mul 6 2 roll
4 index sub exch 5 -1 roll sub exch
4 2 roll
4 index add exch 5 -1 roll add exch
4 2 roll
}bd
/frame1up
{
gS
mTS setmatrix
QDframwid lw
/setstrokeadjust where{pop T setstrokeadjust}if
clippath pathbbox
2 index sub exch
3 index sub exch
currentlinewidth framewidth mul
adjRect
numframes dup 0 lt{pop 0}if
{
4 copy
rS
currentlinewidth framewidth
mul 4 mul
adjRect
}repeat
pop pop pop pop
gR
}bd
/$c devr def
/rectclip where
{
pop/rC/rectclip ld
}{
/rC
{
np 4 2 roll
:M
1 index 0 rl
0 exch rl
neg 0 rl
:K
clip np
}bd
}ifelse
/rectfill where
{
pop/rF/rectfill ld
}{
/rF
{
gS
np
4 2 roll
:M
1 index 0 rl
0 exch rl
neg 0 rl
fill
gR
}bd
}ifelse
/rectstroke where
{
pop/rS/rectstroke ld
}{
/rS
{
gS
np
4 2 roll
:M
1 index 0 rl
0 exch rl
neg 0 rl
:K
stroke
gR
}bd
}ifelse
%%EndFile
%%BeginFile: lw8_level1_colorspace-2.0
/G/setgray ld
/:F1/setgray ld
/:F/setrgbcolor ld
/:F4/setcmykcolor where
{
pop
/setcmykcolor ld
}{
{
3
{
dup
3 -1 roll add
dup 1 gt{pop 1}if
1 exch sub
4 1 roll
}repeat
pop
setrgbcolor
}bd
}ifelse
/:Fx
{
counttomark
{0{G}0{:F}{:F4}}
exch get
exec
pop
}bd
/$cs Z
/:rg{devr :ss}bd
/:sc{$cs :ss}bd
/:dc
{
dup type/arraytype eq{0 get}if
dup/DeviceCMYK eq
{
pop devc
}{
/DeviceGray eq
{
devg
}{
devr
}ifelse
}ifelse
/$cs xdf
}bd
/:sgl{}def
/:dr{}bd
/:fCRD{pop}bd
/:ckcs{}bd
/:ss{/$c xdf}bd
%%EndFile
%%BeginFile: lw8_uniform_graphics-2.0
/@a
{
np :M 0 rl :L 0 exch rl 0 rl :L fill
}bd
/@b
{
np :M 0 rl 0 exch rl :L 0 rl 0 exch rl fill
}bd
/@c
{
moveto 0 rlineto stroke
}bd
/@w
{
moveto 0 exch rlineto stroke
}bd
/arct where
{
pop
}{
/arct
{
arcto pop pop pop pop
}bd
}ifelse
/x1 Z
/x2 Z
/y1 Z
/y2 Z
/rad Z
/@q
{
/rad xs
/y2 xs
/x2 xs
/y1 xs
/x1 xs
np
x2 x1 add 2 div y1 :M
x2 y1 x2 y2 rad arct
x2 y2 x1 y2 rad arct
x1 y2 x1 y1 rad arct
x1 y1 x2 y1 rad arct
fill
}bd
/@s
{
/rad xs
/y2 xs
/x2 xs
/y1 xs
/x1 xs
np
x2 x1 add 2 div y1 :M
x2 y1 x2 y2 rad arct
x2 y2 x1 y2 rad arct
x1 y2 x1 y1 rad arct
x1 y1 x2 y1 rad arct
:K
stroke
}bd
/@i
{
np 0 360 arc fill
}bd
/@j
{
gS
np
:T
scale
0 0 .5 0 360 arc
fill
gR
}bd
/@e
{
np
0 360 arc
:K
stroke
}bd
/@f
{
np
$m currentmatrix
pop
:T
scale
0 0 .5 0 360 arc
:K
$m setmatrix
stroke
}bd
/@k
{
gS
np
:T
0 0 :M
0 0 5 2 roll
arc fill
gR
}bd
/@l
{
gS
np
:T
0 0 :M
scale
0 0 .5 5 -2 roll arc
fill
gR
}bd
/@m
{
np
arc
stroke
}bd
/@n
{
np
$m currentmatrix
pop
:T
scale
0 0 .5 5 -2 roll arc
$m setmatrix
stroke
}bd
%%EndFile
%%BeginFile: lw8_basic_text-2.0
/S/show ld
/A{
0.0 exch ashow
}bd
/R{
0.0 exch 32 exch widthshow
}bd
/W{
0.0 3 1 roll widthshow
}bd
/J{
0.0 32 4 2 roll 0.0 exch awidthshow
}bd
/V{
0.0 4 1 roll 0.0 exch awidthshow
}bd
/fcflg T def
/fc{
fcflg{
vmstatus exch sub 50000 lt{
(%%[ Warning: Running out of memory ]%%\r)print flush/fcflg F store
}if pop
}if
}bd
/$f[1 0 0 -1 0 0]def
/:ff{$f :mf}bd
/MacEncoding StandardEncoding 256 array copy def
MacEncoding dup 9/space put dup 39/quotesingle put 96/grave put
/Adieresis/Aring/Ccedilla/Eacute/Ntilde/Odieresis/Udieresis/aacute
/agrave/acircumflex/adieresis/atilde/aring/ccedilla/eacute/egrave
/ecircumflex/edieresis/iacute/igrave/icircumflex/idieresis/ntilde/oacute
/ograve/ocircumflex/odieresis/otilde/uacute/ugrave/ucircumflex/udieresis
/dagger/degree/cent/sterling/section/bullet/paragraph/germandbls
/registered/copyright/trademark/acute/dieresis/notequal/AE/Oslash
/infinity/plusminus/lessequal/greaterequal/yen/mu/partialdiff/summation
/product/pi/integral/ordfeminine/ordmasculine/Omega/ae/oslash
/questiondown/exclamdown/logicalnot/radical/florin/approxequal/Delta/guillemotleft
/guillemotright/ellipsis/space/Agrave/Atilde/Otilde/OE/oe
/endash/emdash/quotedblleft/quotedblright/quoteleft/quoteright/divide/lozenge
/ydieresis/Ydieresis/fraction/currency/guilsinglleft/guilsinglright/fi/fl
/daggerdbl/periodcentered/quotesinglbase/quotedblbase/perthousand
/Acircumflex/Ecircumflex/Aacute/Edieresis/Egrave/Iacute/Icircumflex/Idieresis/Igrave
/Oacute/Ocircumflex/apple/Ograve/Uacute/Ucircumflex/Ugrave/dotlessi/circumflex/tilde
/macron/breve/dotaccent/ring/cedilla/hungarumlaut/ogonek/caron
MacEncoding 128 128 getinterval astore pop
level2 startnoload
/copyfontdict
{
findfont dup length dict
begin
{
1 index/FID ne{def}{pop pop}ifelse
}forall
}bd
/$ckeyd md def
/:skey
{
1 index maxlength 2 index
length sub
ge
{
begin
/$mkeys 20 dict def
/$mkeys load
end
dup/$ckeyd xs
}if
3 1 roll put
}bd
/fD1pass
{
40
$ckeyd
//md
ne
{
pop 1
}if
$ckeyd exch
:skey
}bd
/:searchdict Z
/:searchdict
{
exch 2 copy
known
{
get
}{
exch/$mkeys
get
:searchdict
}ifelse
}bd
/lU
{
//md exch 2 copy
known
{
get
}{
exch
/$mkeys get
:searchdict
}ifelse
}bd
level2 endnoload level2 not startnoload
/copyfontdict
{
findfont dup length dict
copy
begin
}bd
/fD1pass/def ld
/lU/load ld
level2 not endnoload
/fD Z
/sf Z
/scf Z
/sf1pass
{
lU setfont
}bd
/scf1pass
{
exch lU exch scalefont fD
}bd
/scf2pass
{
scalefont fD
}bd
md/fontname known not{
/fontname/customfont def
}if
/Encoding Z
/:mre
{
copyfontdict
/Encoding MacEncoding def
fontname currentdict
end
definefont :ff fD
}bd
/:bsr
{
copyfontdict
/Encoding Encoding 256 array copy def
Encoding dup
}bd
/pd{put dup}bd
/:esr
{
pop pop
fontname currentdict
end
definefont :ff fD
}bd
/ps Z
/fz{/ps xs}bd
/cF/currentfont ld
/mbf
{
/makeblendedfont where
{
pop
makeblendedfont
/ABlend exch definefont
}{
pop
}ifelse
fD
}def
%%EndFile
/currentpacking where {pop sc_oldpacking setpacking}if end
%%EndProlog
%%BeginSetup
md begin
/fD/def ld/sf/setfont ld /scf/scf2pass ld
sfcl{
%%BeginFeature: *Smoothing False
2 dict
dup /PostRenderingEnhance false put
dup /PostRenderingEnhanceDetails
2 dict
dup /Type 1 put
dup /ActualPostRenderingEnhance false put
put
setpagedevice
%%EndFeature
}efcl
sfcl{
%%BeginFeature: *BitsPerPixel None
2 dict
dup /PreRenderingEnhance false put
dup /PreRenderingEnhanceDetails
2 dict
dup /Type 1 put
dup /ActualPreRenderingEnhance false put
put
setpagedevice
%%EndFeature
}efcl
sfcl{
%%BeginFeature: *TraySwitch False
1 dict dup /TraySwitch false put setpagedevice
%%EndFeature
}efcl
sfcl{
%%BeginFeature: *ManualFeed False
1 dict dup /ManualFeed false put setpagedevice
%%EndFeature
}efcl
sfcl{
%%BeginFeature: *PageSize LetterSmall
2 dict dup /PageSize [612 792] put dup /ImagingBBox null put setpagedevice
%%EndFeature
}efcl
sfcl{
%%BeginFeature: *Resolution 600dpi
1 dict dup /HWResolution [600 600] put setpagedevice
%%EndFeature
}efcl
(kay)setjob
/mT[1 0 0 -1 30 761]def
/sD 16 dict def
600 level2{1 dict dup/WaitTimeout 4 -1 roll put setuserparams}{statusdict/waittimeout 3 -1 roll put}ifelse
%%IncludeFont: Palatino-Roman
/f44/Palatino-Roman
:mre
/f60 f44 12 scf
%%IncludeFont: Palatino-Italic
/f71/Palatino-Italic
:mre
/f87 f71 12 scf
/f98 f44 10 scf
/f109 f71 10 scf
/f120 f44 9 scf
/f131 f44 8 scf
/f142 f44 7 scf
%%IncludeFont: Palatino-Bold
/f153/Palatino-Bold
:mre
/f168 f153 12 scf
/f179 f153 7 scf
%%IncludeFont: Symbol
/f199/Symbol
:bsr
240/apple pd
:esr
/f211 f199 12 scf
/f222 f199 9 scf
/f233 f199 7 scf
/f244 f199 8 scf
/f255 f199 10 scf
%%IncludeFont: Palatino-BoldItalic
/f266/Palatino-BoldItalic
:mre
/f284 f266 12 scf
/f295 f44 13 scf
/f306 f199 18 scf
/f317 f199 11 scf
/f328 f44 24 scf
/f339 f44 18 scf
/f350 f44 14 scf
/f361 f199 24 scf
/Courier findfont[10 0 0 -10 0 0]:mf setfont
%%EndSetup
%%Page: 1 1
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 1 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
gS 0 0 552 730 rC
42 721 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
111 51 :M
1.528 .153(Grammatical Constructions and Linguistic Generalizations:)J
175 65 :M
1.114 .111(the )J
f87 sf
1.594 .159(What's X doing Y?)J
f60 sf
2.609 .261( Construction)J
186 93 :M
.868 .087(Paul Kay and Charles J. Fillmore)J
253 121 :M
.008(Abstract)A
78 149 :M
.558 .056(The goal of this paper is to present, by means of the detailed analysis of a)J
42 163 :M
1.497 .15(single grammatical problem, some of the principal commitments and mechanisms)J
42 177 :M
.689 .069(of a grammatical theory which assigns a central role to the notion of )J
f98 sf
.301(GRAMMATICAL)A
42 191 :M
.302(CONSTRUCTION)A
f60 sf
.911 .091(. To adopt a constructional approach is to undertake a commitment)J
42 205 :M
.908 .091(in principle to account for the entirety of each language. This means that the)J
42 219 :M
.917 .092(relatively general patterns of the language, such as the one licensing the ordering of)J
42 233 :M
.858 .086(a finite auxiliary verb before its subject in English, often known as SAI, and the)J
42 247 :M
1.355 .135(highly idiomatic patterns, like )J
f87 sf
1.212 .121(kick the bucket)J
f60 sf
.944 .094(, stand on an equal footing as data for)J
42 261 :M
1.086 .109(which the grammar must account. An explicit grammar that covers the full range)J
42 275 :M
1.044 .104(of constructions must represent all constructions, of whatever degree of generality)J
42 289 :M
1.133 .113(or idiomaticity, in a common notation and must provide an explicit account of how)J
42 303 :M
.718 .072(each sentence of a language is licensed by a subset of the leaves of the inheritance)J
42 317 :M
1.134 .113(hierarchy of constructions which constitutes the grammar of that language.)J
42 331 :M
1.212 .121(Language-internal generalizations are captured by inheritance relations among)J
42 345 :M
.808 .081(constructions. Cross-language generalizations are captured by the architecture of the)J
42 359 :M
.704 .07(representation system and by the sharing of abstract constructions across languages.)J
42 373 :M
1.526 .153(The particular grammatical phenomenon used here to introduce construction)J
42 387 :M
.957 .096(grammar \(CG\) is the construction that licenses the surprising syntactic and semantic)J
42 402 :M
1.832 .183(features of a sentence like )J
f87 sf
2.508 .251(What are they doing resuscitating constructions?)J
f109 sf
0 -3 rm
(*)S
0 3 rm
42 470 :M
f98 sf
1.04(__________________________)A
42 484 :M
.232 .023(* )J
f60 sf
0 3 rm
1.146 .115(The authors gratefully acknowledge much fruitful discussion regarding the)J
0 -3 rm
42 501 :M
1.008 .101(content of this paper with Mary Catherine O'Connor. We are indebted to Yoon-Suk)J
42 515 :M
1.261 .126(Chung, Ron Kaplan, Ray Jackendoff, Susanne Riehemann and Ivan Sag for)J
42 529 :M
.978 .098(comments on earlier drafts and to Andreas Kathol, Jean-Pierre Koenig and Geoffrey)J
42 543 :M
1.134 .113(Pullum for extensive comments and detailed discussion. Errors are the authors'.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 2 2
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 2 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.649 .065(0. Introduction. The goal of this paper is to present, by means of the detailed)J
72 96 :M
1.129 .113(analysis of a single grammatical problem, some of the principal commitments and)J
72 110 :M
1.06 .106(mechanisms of a grammatical theory which assigns a central role to the notion of)J
72 124 :M
f98 sf
.693 .069(GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION)J
f60 sf
(.)S
108 146 :M
1.087 .109(To adopt a constructional approach is to undertake a commitment in)J
72 160 :M
.983 .098(principle to account for the entirety of each language.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.211(1)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.653 .065( This means that the)J
72 174 :M
.917 .092(relatively general patterns of the language, such as the one licensing the ordering of)J
72 188 :M
.826 .083(a finite auxiliary verb before its subject in English as illustrated in 1, and the more)J
72 202 :M
.771 .077(idiomatic patterns, such as those exemplified in 2, stand on an equal footing as data)J
72 216 :M
1.216 .122(for which the grammar must provide an account.)J
108 238 :M
(\(1\))S
130 238 :M
(a.)S
157 238 :M
1.711 .171(What have you done?)J
130 252 :M
-.636(b.)A
157 252 :M
1.176 .118(Never will I leave you.)J
130 266 :M
-.326(c.)A
157 266 :M
1.246 .125(So will she.)J
130 280 :M
-.33(d.)A
157 280 :M
.627 .063(Long may you prosper!)J
130 294 :M
.255(e.)A
157 294 :M
.366 .037(Had I known, . . .)J
130 308 :M
(f.)S
157 308 :M
1.161 .116(Am I tired!)J
130 322 :M
-.671(g.)A
157 322 :M
.485 .049(. . . as were the others)J
130 336 :M
1.019(h.)A
157 336 :M
1.072 .107(Thus did the hen reward Beecher.)J
108 358 :M
(\(2\))S
130 358 :M
(a.)S
157 358 :M
-.024(by and large)A
130 372 :M
-.636(b.)A
157 372 :M
.166 .017([to] have a field day)J
130 386 :M
-.326(c.)A
157 386 :M
.673 .067([to] have to hand it to [someone])J
130 400 :M
-.33(d.)A
157 400 :M
.672 .067(\(*A/*The\) Fool that I was, . . .)J
130 414 :M
.255(e.)A
157 414 :M
.969 .097( in x's own right)J
108 436 :M
1.425 .142(Given such a commitment, the construction grammarian is required to)J
72 450 :M
.849 .085(develop an explicit system of representation, capable of encoding economically and)J
72 464 :M
1.023 .102(without loss of generalization, all the constructions \(or patterns\) of the language,)J
72 478 :M
.943 .094(from the most idiomatic to the most general. This goal was advanced in the form of)J
72 492 :M
1.114 .111(a promissory note in an earlier paper that dealt with the English )J
f87 sf
1.354 .135(let alone)J
72 506 :M
f60 sf
.853 .085(construction: "It appears to us that the machinery needed for describing the so-called)J
72 520 :M
1.128 .113(minor or peripheral constructions of the sort which has occupied us here will have)J
72 534 :M
.933 .093(to be powerful enough to be generalized to more familiar structures, in particular)J
72 548 :M
1.102 .11(those represented by individual phrase structure rules" \(Fillmore, Kay and)J
72 562 :M
.968 .097(O'Connor 1988: 534\).)J
108 590 :M
.534 .053(The present paper was originally drafted as a first step toward making good on)J
72 604 :M
1.028 .103(that promissory note by studying another seemingly \324non-core\325 construction of)J
72 618 :M
1.053 .105(English, but this time with particular attention to 1\) the formal system in which this)J
72 632 :M
.911 .091(and all other constructions can be represented in a grammar and 2\) the relations that)J
72 646 :M
.914 .091(obtain between the construction under study and the more general, so-called core,)J
72 660 :M
.989 .099(constructions of English. Since we began working on this construction, a number of)J
72 674 :M
.885 .088(analyses and suggestions for development of the CG framework have appeared.)J
72 688 :M
1.028 .103(Although diverse in detail, these proposals are all concerned with developing an)J
72 702 :M
1.071 .107(explicit, non-derivational \(constraint based\) grammar, based on the notion of a)J
72 716 :M
1.317 .132(grammatical construction as a conventional association of linguistic form and)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 3 3
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 3 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
420 45 :M
f98 sf
.151 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 3)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
1.134 .113(content. Among the works developing the CG approach which have influenced our)J
72 96 :M
.821 .082(thinking are Chung \(in press, 1995\), Chung and Gammon 1996, Filip \(in press, 1993\),)J
72 110 :M
.325 .032(Fried \(1995\), Goldberg \(1996, 1995\), Jurafsky \(1996\), Koenig \(1994\), Koenig and)J
72 124 :M
.625 .063(Jurafsky \(1994\), Koenig and Lambrecht \(in press\), Lambrecht \(1997, 1994\), Michaelis)J
72 138 :M
.437 .044(\(1994\), Michaelis and Lambrecht \(1996\), Ohara \(1994\), Orgun \(1996a,b\), Radetsky and)J
72 152 :M
.841 .084(Smith \(in press\), and Zwicky \(1994\). Recent applications of the construction concept)J
72 166 :M
1.284 .128(in related frameworks include Ackerman \(1998, 1995\), Ackerman and Webelhuth)J
72 180 :M
.63 .063(\(1998\), Culicover and Jackendoff \(1997\), Inkelas and Orgun \(1995\), Kathol \(1995\))J
72 194 :M
.518 .052(Jackendoff \(1993, 1997\), Malouf \(1996\), O'Connor \(1995\), and Sag \(1997\).)J
108 216 :M
1.152 .115(Section 1 introduces the notion of grammatical construction and locates it)J
72 230 :M
1.377 .138(within constraint-based, non-derivational theories of grammar. Section 2)J
72 244 :M
.836 .084(introduces the title construction and presents arguments for its status as a separate)J
72 258 :M
1.078 .108(construction. Section 3 introduces some of the central ideas and mechanisms of the)J
72 272 :M
.888 .089(construction grammar \(CG\) framework as background to the analysis that follows.)J
72 286 :M
.895 .089(In section 4 we present a detailed account of the representation of this construction.)J
72 300 :M
1.294 .129(Section 5 presents our conclusions.)J
72 328 :M
1.119 .112(1. The notion of construction and the )J
f87 sf
1.06 .106(What's X doing Y )J
f60 sf
1.658 .166(construction. The system)J
72 342 :M
.854 .085(for representing both )J
f98 sf
.258(CONSTRUCTIONS)A
f60 sf
.74 .074( and the words, phrases and sentences of the)J
72 356 :M
.776 .078(language which they license \320 which we call )J
f98 sf
.273(CONSTRUCTS)A
f60 sf
.709 .071( \320 consists of rooted trees)J
72 372 :M
.942 .094(whose nodes correspond to feature structures.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.146(2)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.617 .062( A construction \(e.g., the subject-)J
72 386 :M
.959 .096(auxiliary inversion construction\) is a set of conditions licensing a class of actual)J
72 400 :M
.727 .073(constructs of a language \(e.g., the class of English inverted clauses, including all of)J
72 414 :M
.968 .097(those in 1 above\).)J
108 436 :M
.901 .09(Often a construction will specify something about a mother node and each of)J
72 450 :M
1.165 .117(its daughters, including their linear order. Sometimes the construction will fail to)J
72 464 :M
1.007 .101(give any information about the linear order of the daughters or will give only)J
72 478 :M
.972 .097(partial information about it \(as is the case with the English verb phrase construction)J
72 492 :M
.873 .087(introduced in Figure 2 below\). Other kinds of constructions are devoted primarily)J
72 506 :M
.786 .079(to expressing relations of linear order among sisters, for example the patterns by)J
72 520 :M
1.263 .126(which, in English, a relatively 'light' constituent may intervene between a verb and)J
72 534 :M
1.026 .103(its NP direct object \(a pattern which corresponds to both 'particle movement' and)J
72 548 :M
1.79 .179('heavy NP shift' in transformationalist frameworks\).)J
108 570 :M
.79 .079(Occasionally we find constructions that specify spans of a tree more extensive)J
72 584 :M
1.292 .129(than the 'nuclear family' of mother and daughters \(for example, the correlative)J
72 598 :M
1.001 .1(conditional construction discussed by Fillmore 1986: 163-182 or the )J
f87 sf
.22(may...but...)A
72 612 :M
f60 sf
.599 .06(construction discussed by P. Kay 1990\). At the other extreme there are lexical)J
72 626 :M
1.05 .105(constructions specifying a single constituent with no daughters.)J
108 648 :M
.84 .084(CG is a monostratal, constraint-based system in which syntactic and semantic)J
72 662 :M
1.028 .103(information are represented within a single feature structure \(represented by an)J
72 678 :M
1.317 .132(attribute-value matrix or AVM\).)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.189(3)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.857 .086( As such it bears strong structural similarities to)J
72 692 :M
1.107 .111(functional unification grammar \(M. Kay 1983\), generalized phrase structure)J
72 706 :M
1.135 .113(grammar \(Gazdar )J
f87 sf
.604 .06(et al.)J
f60 sf
.968 .097( 1985\), lexical functional grammar \(Bresnan 1982\) and,)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 4 4
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 4 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
420 45 :M
f98 sf
.151 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 4)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.927 .093(particularly, head-driven phrase structure grammar \(Pollard and Sag 1994\), among)J
72 96 :M
.993 .099(several others within the broad family of so-called unification-based approaches)J
72 110 :M
.981 .098(\(Shieber 1986\). We will introduce the CG system of representation, mostly through)J
72 124 :M
1.153 .115(illustration and informal discussion, in later sections of the paper.)J
108 146 :M
1.121 .112(The particular construction with which we are centrally concerned in this)J
72 160 :M
.943 .094(paper is the one which determines those aspects of form and meaning that are)J
72 174 :M
.613 .061(shared by each of the sentences in 3.)J
108 196 :M
(\(3\))S
130 196 :M
(a.)S
157 196 :M
.954 .095(What is this scratch doing on the table?)J
130 210 :M
-.636(b.)A
157 210 :M
1.031 .103(What do you think your name is doing in my book?)J
130 224 :M
-.326(c.)A
157 224 :M
.936 .094(I wonder what the salesman will say this house is doing without)J
157 238 :M
1.523 .152(a kitchen.)J
130 252 :M
-.33(d.)A
157 252 :M
.744 .074(I don't suppose the police had anything to say about what their)J
157 266 :M
1.041 .104(so-called detective thought the footprints were doing under the)J
157 280 :M
1.454 .145(bedroom window.)J
130 294 :M
.255(e.)A
157 294 :M
1.318 .132(What is it doing raining?)J
130 308 :M
(f.)S
157 308 :M
1.103 .11('What's a nice girl like you doing in a place like this?')J
130 322 :M
-.671(g.)A
157 322 :M
.936 .094(What am I doing reading this paper?)J
72 344 :M
.963 .096(We will call this the )J
f87 sf
1.08 .108(What's X doing Y? )J
f60 sf
1.626 .163(construction \(WXDY\), though we need to)J
72 360 :M
1.325 .133(point out potential sources of confusion in the name.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.253(4)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
1.053 .105( The name we have given)J
72 374 :M
.96 .096(the construction has the form of a main-clause question with a single clause, but \(i\))J
72 388 :M
1.09 .109(the construction licenses embedded interrogative clauses as well as main-clause)J
72 402 :M
.735 .074(questions, as in example 3c, and \(ii\) it may accommodate a long-distance dependency)J
72 416 :M
1.774 .177(between )J
f87 sf
1.202 .12(what )J
f60 sf
1.113 .111(and )J
f87 sf
.365(doing)A
f60 sf
.834 .083(, as in 3d.)J
72 452 :M
1.003 .1(2. Arguments for the existence of a )J
f87 sf
1.036 .104(What's X doing Y? )J
f60 sf
.34(construction)A
f142 sf
.141 .014(. )J
f60 sf
1.44 .144(Since many of)J
72 466 :M
1.075 .107(the properties that concern us are also found in unlimitedly many sentences of)J
72 480 :M
.945 .094(English which are not instances of our construction, we need to make the case that)J
72 494 :M
1.048 .105(there is a single independent construction needed for licensing the sentences in 3.)J
72 508 :M
.765 .076(There are two steps in building this argument. First, we show that there are specific)J
72 522 :M
1.272 .127(semantic interpretations associated by convention with just such sentences,)J
72 536 :M
1.143 .114(interpretations that are neither given by ordinary compositional processes nor)J
72 550 :M
1.006 .101(derived from a literal meaning by processes of conversational reasoning. Second,)J
72 564 :M
.914 .091(we demonstrate that sentences which carry such interpretations are subject to a)J
72 578 :M
.902 .09(special array of morphosyntactic constraints.)J
72 614 :M
1.414 .141(2.1 The interpretational features of )J
f87 sf
1.328 .133(What's X doing Y?)J
f142 sf
.105 .011( )J
f60 sf
1.518 .152(The question of the meaning)J
72 628 :M
.678 .068(of this special construction may be approached by considering the ambiguity)J
72 642 :M
1.283 .128(underlying an old joke)J
108 664 :M
(\(4\))S
144 664 :M
.652 .065(Diner: )J
216 664 :M
1.078 .108(Waiter, what's this fly doing in my soup?)J
144 678 :M
1.113 .111(Waiter: )J
216 678 :M
.989 .099(Madam, I believe that's the backstroke.)J
108 700 :M
1.166 .117(The diner's utterance is open to two interpretations and the joke turns on the)J
72 714 :M
.993 .099(waiter's pretense of having chosen the wrong one. In the interpretation feigned by)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 5 5
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 5 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
420 45 :M
f98 sf
.151 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 5)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.724 .072(the waiter, the diner presupposes that the fly is engaged in some activity \320 that is,)J
72 96 :M
.699 .07(that it's )J
f98 sf
.35(DOING)A
f60 sf
1.014 .101( something \320 and requests that the waiter inform her regarding the)J
72 110 :M
.889 .089(nature of this activity. In the interpretation intended by the diner, she was not)J
72 124 :M
1.039 .104(asking an innocent question regarding an )J
f98 sf
.281(ACTIVITY)A
f60 sf
.662 .066( on the part of the fly in her soup)J
72 138 :M
.803 .08(but was indicating that something is )J
f98 sf
.282(INCONGRUOUS)A
f60 sf
.62 .062( about there being a fly in)J
f87 sf
.108 .011( )J
f60 sf
.347(her)A
72 152 :M
.93 .093(soup at all. Recognizing this interpretation, we find that the diner's utterance can be)J
72 166 :M
.01 .001(fairly paraphrased by 5a but not by 5b.)J
108 188 :M
(\(5\))S
130 188 :M
(a.)S
157 188 :M
.898 .09(How come there's a fly in my soup?)J
130 202 :M
-.636(b.)A
157 202 :M
1.168 .117(What's this fly in my soup doing?)J
72 224 :M
.985 .099(Note that we chose to paraphrase the intended interpretation 5a with the)J
72 238 :M
2.429 .243(\(colloquial\) interrogative )J
f87 sf
2.216 .222(how come)J
f60 sf
.331 .033(. )J
f87 sf
2.373 .237(How come)J
f60 sf
1.8 .18( questions do more than request)J
72 252 :M
.926 .093(explanations and in this way they go further pragmatically than )J
f87 sf
.751 .075(why )J
f60 sf
.96 .096(questions. A)J
72 266 :M
.805 .08(question like 6a is an unadorned request for an explanation of the buoyancy of)J
72 280 :M
.655 .065(wood, but a question like 6b adds to this the idea that the questioner finds the)J
72 294 :M
.489 .049(buoyancy of wood to be surprising, puzzling, inappropriate, or, as we will say,)J
72 308 :M
f87 sf
.876(incongruous)A
f60 sf
(.)S
108 330 :M
(\(6\))S
130 330 :M
(a.)S
157 330 :M
1.005 .101(Why does wood float?)J
130 344 :M
-.636(b.)A
157 344 :M
.89 .089(How come wood floats?)J
108 366 :M
.93 .093(We will argue that, as a part of the grammar of English, the )J
f87 sf
1.369 .137(What's X Doing)J
72 380 :M
.434(Y?)A
f60 sf
1.134 .113( construction, like the )J
f87 sf
1.21 .121(How Come )J
f60 sf
1.69 .169(question construction, directly encodes, in)J
72 394 :M
.763 .076(addition to a request or demand for an explanation, the pragmatic force of)J
72 408 :M
.862 .086(attributing what we call )J
f98 sf
.287(INCONGRUITY)A
f60 sf
.776 .078( to the scene or proposition for which the)J
72 422 :M
1.196 .12(explanation is required.)J
72 458 :M
1.167 .117(2.2 The interpretational source of )J
f87 sf
.934 .093(What's X doing Y? )J
f60 sf
.313(sentences)A
f142 sf
.127 .013(. )J
f60 sf
1.169 .117(It might be argued)J
72 472 :M
.644 .064(that the incongruity reading of the backstroking fly example 4 is derivable by)J
72 486 :M
1.218 .122(conversational implicature from a literally intended question. Since to most people,)J
72 500 :M
.516 .052(the struggles of a fly floating on its back in a liquid are recognized as an attempt to)J
72 514 :M
.786 .079(escape, asking what the fly is 'doing' has to be seen as uncooperative and thus \320 or)J
72 528 :M
.894 .089(so this explanation would go \320 gives rise to the implicature that the diner is really)J
72 542 :M
.978 .098(drawing attention to the incongruity of the scene. And given this particular)J
72 556 :M
.896 .09(incongruity \(a fly is an unwelcome ingredient in a soup\), this would have to be)J
72 570 :M
.854 .085(heard as a complaint about the restaurant and its service.)J
108 598 :M
.957 .096(The model for such reasoning might be the utterance of a sentence like 7,)J
72 612 :M
1.232 .123(which in its context could conventionally implicate a judgment of disapproval on)J
72 626 :M
.655 .066(the part of the speaker.)J
108 654 :M
(\(7\))S
144 654 :M
.795 .08(Look what your children are doing in my garden.)J
72 682 :M
.989 .099(The sentence draws attention to the activities of the addressee's children and, if such)J
72 696 :M
.745 .075(activities \320 such as digging trenches \320 should be unwanted, may lead the addressee)J
72 710 :M
.71 .071(to conclude that the speaker wishes to express disapproval. But this is not a)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 6 6
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 6 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
420 45 :M
f98 sf
.151 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 6)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.982 .098(necessary interpretational feature of the sentence itself. In other contexts the)J
72 96 :M
.923 .092(speaker might be conveying nothing of the sort: consider example 8.)J
108 124 :M
(\(8\))S
144 124 :M
.682 .068(Look what your children are doing in my garden. How adorable!)J
108 146 :M
1.18 .118(By contrast, the incongruity judgment arising from WXDY morphosyntax is)J
72 160 :M
1.072 .107(not in the same way subject to contextual modification. Consider the interpretive)J
72 174 :M
.858 .086(chaos engendered by the following example, in which the speaker expresses in the)J
72 188 :M
.835 .083(second sentence an attitude at odds with the attitude revealed in the first.)J
108 210 :M
(\(9\))S
144 210 :M
.801 .08(What are your children doing playing in my garden? How adorable?)J
72 232 :M
( )S
108 232 :M
1.393 .139(Secondly, implicatures derive from a confrontation of literal interpretations)J
72 246 :M
.574 .057(with contexts, but many WXDY sentences \(e.g., 3 a, b, c , d, e\) have no literal reading)J
72 260 :M
.663 .066(at all. A scratch, a name, a house, etc. can not be literally said to be 'doing' anything.)J
108 282 :M
1.259 .126(A third reason for rejecting the conversational implicature account is)J
72 296 :M
.922 .092(provided by examples like the following:)J
108 318 :M
(\(10\))S
144 318 :M
1.16 .116(In a conversation between members of a criminal defense team.)J
144 332 :M
.992 .099("How are we going to deal with our client's confusing account of )J
f87 sf
1.022 .102(what )J
144 346 :M
3.03 .303(the photographs were doing in his brief case)J
f60 sf
1.608(?")A
108 368 :M
.915 .091(The italicized clause represents a WXDY construct. The problem for the)J
72 382 :M
1.045 .105(interpreter is: whose judgment of incongruity \(of the photographs being in the)J
72 396 :M
.644 .064(defendant's briefcase\) does the sentence express. It cannot be attributed to the)J
72 410 :M
.781 .078(speaker or the addressee of the sentence, or to the defendant, all of whom need to)J
72 424 :M
1.1 .11(believe, or to present themselves as believing, that there is nothing out of the)J
72 438 :M
.792 .079(ordinary in this state of affairs. The sentence recognizes that somebody \320 the judge)J
72 452 :M
.997 .1(or the jury \320 might detect an incongruity in this situation, but such a judgment is)J
72 466 :M
.959 .096(not attributable to any individual associated with the sentence itself.)J
108 488 :M
1.47 .147(While the WXDY construction may have had its origin in conversational)J
72 502 :M
1.096 .11(implicature \320 through situations in which an individual A is clearly up to no good)J
72 516 :M
.685 .069(and B asks what A is doing \320 the semantics of incongruity is now )J
f98 sf
.316(CONVENTIONALLY)A
72 530 :M
f60 sf
.903 .09(associated with the special morphosyntax of WXDY constructs.)J
72 566 :M
.958 .096(2.3 Grammatical evidence for constructionality. )J
f168 sf
.101 .01( )J
f60 sf
.749 .075(Expressions that we take to be)J
72 580 :M
1.284 .128(instances of the WXDY construction have several idiosyncratic morphosyntactic)J
72 594 :M
.938 .094(properties. First, they must contain the verb )J
f87 sf
.283(do)A
f60 sf
.92 .092(. Example 11a has both the innocent)J
72 608 :M
.952 .095(question reading and the incongruity reading \('How come she was under the bed?'\),)J
72 622 :M
1.038 .104(but without contextual support, the incongruity interpretation is lacking in the b)J
72 636 :M
.677 .068(and c examples.)J
108 658 :M
(\(11\))S
139 658 :M
(a.)S
166 658 :M
.921 .092(What was she doing under the bed?)J
139 672 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 672 :M
.818 .082(What activity was she engaged in under the bed?)J
139 686 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 686 :M
.95 .095(What act was she performing under the bed?)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 7 7
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 7 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
420 45 :M
f98 sf
.151 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 7)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
108 82 :M
.911 .091(Secondly, the verb )J
f87 sf
.251(do)A
f60 sf
.89 .089( in such sentences always appears in the present)J
72 96 :M
.875 .087(participle form. Compare the examples in 12 with those in 3.)J
108 118 :M
(\(12\))S
139 118 :M
(a.)S
166 118 :M
.872 .087(*What does this scratch do on the table? \(bare stem\))J
139 132 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 132 :M
1.204 .12(*What has your name done absent from the list of contributors?)J
166 146 :M
.461 .046(\(past participle\))J
139 160 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 160 :M
.954 .095(*I wonder what the salesman will say this house does without a)J
166 174 :M
1.402 .14(kitchen. \(simple present tense\))J
139 188 :M
-.33(d.)A
166 188 :M
.817 .082(*I don't suppose the police had anything to say about what their)J
166 202 :M
1.031 .103(so-called detective thought the footprints did under the bedroom)J
166 216 :M
.956 .096(window. \(simple past tense\))J
139 230 :M
.255(e.)A
166 230 :M
1.371 .137(*What does it do raining?)J
139 244 :M
(f.)S
166 244 :M
.765 .076(What does a nice girl like you do in a place like this?)J
139 258 :M
-.671(g.)A
166 258 :M
.868 .087(*What do I do reading this paper?)J
72 280 :M
.919 .092(Note that while example 12f is a grammatical sentence, it is not an instance of the)J
72 294 :M
1.138 .114(WXDY construction: it does not by convention receive an incongruity reading.)J
108 316 :M
1.322 .132(Third, while in superficially similar sentences the verb form )J
f87 sf
.343(doing)A
f60 sf
1.269 .127( may)J
72 330 :M
.935 .094(appear as a complement to verbs other than copula )J
f87 sf
.553 .055(be, )J
f60 sf
.887 .089(this is not possible with the)J
72 344 :M
f87 sf
.861 .086(What's X doing Y? )J
f60 sf
1.086 .109(construction. Examples 13a and 13b have similar readings if they)J
72 358 :M
.881 .088(are taken as innocent questions, but only example 13b, in which )J
f87 sf
.246(doing)A
f60 sf
.728 .073( appears as a)J
72 372 :M
1.276 .128(complement of copula )J
f87 sf
.236(be,)A
f60 sf
1.349 .135( permits the constructional reading.)J
108 402 :M
(\(13\))S
139 402 :M
(a.)S
166 402 :M
.988 .099(What did he keep doing in the tool shed?)J
139 416 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 416 :M
1.06 .106(What was he still doing in the tool shed?)J
108 438 :M
1.035 .103(Fourth, although the interpretation of a present participle governed by the)J
72 452 :M
.704 .07(copula is ordinarily that of progressive aspect, this may well not be the case in the)J
72 466 :M
f87 sf
1.207 .121(What's X doing Y?)J
f60 sf
1.28 .128( construction. This construction can express an attribution of)J
72 480 :M
1.01 .101(incongruity to events or states whose ordinary forms of expression are notoriously)J
72 494 :M
.84 .084(resistant to simultaneous expression of progressive aspect, as in 14. Apparently, the)J
72 508 :M
.635 .064(encoding of progressive aspect is not a necessary part of WXDY sentences.)J
108 538 :M
(\(14\))S
139 538 :M
(a.)S
166 538 :M
1.536 .154(What's he doing knowing the answer?)J
139 552 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 552 :M
1.151 .115(*He is knowing the answer.)J
139 566 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 566 :M
1.128 .113(What's that scratch doing on the table?)J
139 580 :M
-.33(d.)A
166 580 :M
.807 .081(*That scratch is being on the table.)J
139 594 :M
.255(e.)A
166 594 :M
.914 .091(*The table is having a scratch on it.)J
108 616 :M
1.454 .145(Fifth, the interrogative pronoun in the )J
f87 sf
1.425 .142(What's X doing Y?)J
f60 sf
1.858 .186( construction does)J
72 630 :M
.838 .084(not accept )J
f87 sf
.445 .044(else. )J
f60 sf
1.061 .106(Consider the examples in \(15\).)J
108 652 :M
(\(15\))S
139 652 :M
(a.)S
166 652 :M
.746 .075(Why are you eating cold pizza?)J
139 666 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 666 :M
.726 .073(Why else are you eating cold pizza?)J
139 680 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 680 :M
.991 .099(What are you going to tell her?)J
139 694 :M
-.33(d.)A
166 694 :M
.938 .094(What else are you going to tell her?)J
139 708 :M
.255(e.)A
166 708 :M
.795 .079(What are you doing eating cold pizza?)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 8 8
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 8 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
420 45 :M
f98 sf
.151 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 8)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
139 82 :M
(f.)S
166 82 :M
.883 .088(*What else are you doing eating cold pizza?)J
72 104 :M
.787 .079(Examples 15b and 15d show that )J
f87 sf
.307(why)A
f60 sf
.902 .09( questions and ordinary )J
f87 sf
.267(what)A
f60 sf
1.144 .114( questions permit)J
72 118 :M
f87 sf
.514 .051(else. )J
f60 sf
1.077 .108(But example 15f shows that WXDY questions do not permit )J
f87 sf
.714 .071(else )J
f60 sf
1.751 .175(\(except under)J
72 132 :M
.785 .079(certain special conditions discussed in a later note \).)J
108 154 :M
1.265 .127(Sixth, our construction does not permit negation of either )J
f87 sf
.348(do)A
f60 sf
.443 .044( or )J
f87 sf
.314(be)A
f60 sf
1.18 .118(, as shown)J
72 168 :M
1.293 .129(in 17a,b. Examples 16a,b show that an innocent question involving )J
f87 sf
.425(What)A
f60 sf
.672 .067( and )J
f87 sf
.436(doing)A
72 182 :M
f60 sf
1.136 .114(accepts negation. Examples 16c,d, negative )J
f87 sf
1.42 .142(How come)J
f60 sf
1.042 .104( questions, show that the)J
72 196 :M
.968 .097(problem of negation for WXDY cannot be attributed to the incongruity semantics.)J
108 218 :M
(\(16\))S
139 218 :M
(a.)S
166 218 :M
1.299 .13(What wasn't I doing right?)J
139 232 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 232 :M
.776 .078(What was I not doing the right way?)J
139 246 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 246 :M
.677 .068(How come you are not doing it the right way?)J
139 260 :M
-.33(d.)A
166 260 :M
1.058 .106(How come my brushes aren't soaking in water?)J
108 282 :M
(\(17\))S
139 282 :M
(a.)S
166 282 :M
1.304 .13(*What aren't my brushes doing soaking in water?)J
139 296 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 296 :M
1.108 .111(*What are my brushes not doing soaking in water?)J
139 310 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 310 :M
1.011 .101(What are my brushes doing not soaking in water?)J
108 332 :M
.912 .091(In section 4, these and further morphosyntactic details will be incorporated)J
72 346 :M
1.019 .102(into an explicit CG representation of our construction, along with a consideration of)J
72 360 :M
1.247 .125(the interaction of WXDY with other constructions of English.)J
72 390 :M
1.111 .111(3. Construction grammar. )J
f168 sf
.14 .014( )J
f60 sf
1.049 .105(In this section we will introduce some of the machinery)J
72 404 :M
.886 .089(of CG needed for representing this construction and relating it to the other)J
72 418 :M
1.297 .13(constructions which combine with WXDY in licensing sentences like those in 3. We)J
72 432 :M
.932 .093(will set out the syntactic and semantic properties which define the WXDY)J
72 446 :M
.847 .085(construction and we will show how WXDY constructs like those in 3 are licensed by)J
72 460 :M
1.234 .123(the interaction of WXDY with other constructions in the language.)J
108 482 :M
.739 .074(Of course, most of the properties of the sentences in 3 are due, not to the)J
72 496 :M
1.152 .115(WXDY construction itself, but to the other constructions which contribute to)J
72 510 :M
.768 .077(licensing those constructs. One of the advantages we wish to claim for a)J
72 524 :M
1.231 .123(constructional and unificational approach is the abililty to demonstrate the smooth)J
72 538 :M
1.409 .141(interaction of relatively idiomatic constructions, like WXDY, with the more familiar)J
72 552 :M
1.181 .118(constructions in licensing the sentences of the language.)J
108 574 :M
1.184 .118(The first such construction we will examine is the English VP construction,)J
72 588 :M
.993 .099(the description of which will serve as an introduction to CG notation. The VP)J
72 602 :M
.829 .083(construction is one of a family of constructions for lexically headed phrases, each of)J
72 616 :M
1.156 .116(whose members )J
f98 sf
.261(INHERITS)A
f60 sf
1.052 .105( the abstract head plus complements \(HC\) construction)J
72 630 :M
.646 .065(\(see Figure 1\). The HC construction specifies a phrase consisting of a lexical head)J
72 644 :M
1.091 .109(daughter followed by one or more 'filler' daughters, where 'filler' is a phrasal role)J
72 658 :M
.567 .057(played equally by complements which appear as sisters to a lexical head and those)J
72 672 :M
.945 .095(that don't \(e.g., subjects in a subject-predicate structure, and 'extracted' elements\).)J
72 686 :M
1.136 .114(The fillers in the HC construction, are however, marked local 'loc +'; so-called)J
72 700 :M
.842 .084(extracted constituents, as we will see below, are marked 'loc \320'.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.076 .008( )J
0 6 rm
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
(5)S
0 3 rm
endp
showpage
%%Page: 9 9
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 9 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
420 45 :M
f98 sf
.151 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 9)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
236 82 :M
.836 .084(FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE)J
108 110 :M
1.182 .118(The VP construction adds to the information which it inherits from HC)J
f98 sf
0 -3 rm
.128 .013( )J
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.444(only)A
72 124 :M
.795 .079(that the syntactic category of the head is verbal \('cat v'\) and that none of the filler)J
72 138 :M
1.003 .1(daughters bears the grammatical function \(gf\) subject \(subj\). When one)J
72 152 :M
1.37 .137(construction inherits another, the first contains all the information of the second)J
72 166 :M
.972 .097(and \320 in the non-vacuous case \320 more. The VP construction can be represented as)J
72 180 :M
.764 .076(in Figure 2. The abbreviations \(HC\))J
f98 sf
0 -3 rm
.079 .008( )J
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.727 .073(and \(VP\), written above the box diagrams of)J
72 194 :M
.804 .08(Figure 1 and 2, provide the constructions with official labels which may be referred)J
72 208 :M
1.239 .124(to by other constructions that inherit them.)J
236 230 :M
.836 .084(FIGURE 2 ABOUT HERE)J
72 252 :M
.868 .087(Note that all the information that appears in Figure 1 also appears in Figure 2. Since)J
72 266 :M
.59 .059(we wish to say anyway that VP inherits HC, it is possible to represent the VP)J
72 280 :M
1.478 .148(construction in the formulation given in Figure 3.)J
236 302 :M
.836 .084(FIGURE 3 ABOUT HERE)J
72 330 :M
1.24 .124(The notation ')J
f98 sf
.349(INHERIT)A
f60 sf
.896 .09( HC' looks like an attribute value pair, but it is not. The top)J
72 344 :M
.662 .066(line inside the box of Figure 3 simply indicates \(compare Figures 1, 2, and 3\) that all)J
72 360 :M
.809 .081(the properties of the HC construction are shared by the VP construction.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
(6)S
0 6 rm
72 402 :M
f60 sf
.991 .099(3.1 Constituent structure of the VP construction)J
f142 sf
.124 .012(. )J
f179 sf
.067 .007( )J
f60 sf
.679 .068(In Figures 2 and 3 we see two)J
72 416 :M
.827 .083(smaller boxes within a larger box, the latter also containing some writing at the top.)J
72 430 :M
.755 .076(The fact that there are two boxes within the large box would ordinarily indicate that)J
72 444 :M
1.169 .117(the construction involves a mother constituent and exactly two daughters. Since in)J
72 458 :M
.546 .055(this case the second daughter box is followed by a Kleene plus, the diagram states)J
72 472 :M
1.087 .109(that the construction involves a mother and at least two daughters. The left-hand)J
72 486 :M
.824 .082(box representing the lexical verb; the Kleene plus attached to the right-hand box)J
72 500 :M
.808 .081(indicates that this box can be iterated one or more times in any particular construct)J
72 514 :M
.901 .09(licensed by the VP construction. \(This construction licenses the basic structure of)J
72 528 :M
2.435 .244(such verb phrases as )J
f87 sf
3.695 .37(slept soundly)J
f60 sf
.661 .066(, )J
f87 sf
2.974 .297(wrote the epitaph)J
f60 sf
.661 .066(, )J
f87 sf
3.074 .307(showed everyone his new)J
72 542 :M
.89(shoes)A
f60 sf
1.229(.\))A
72 578 :M
.704 .07(3.2 Headed constructions in CG. )J
f168 sf
.101 .01( )J
f60 sf
.832 .083(Headed constructions of English are of three main)J
72 592 :M
.72 .072(types: those that inherit HC, consisting of a lexical head followed by one or more)J
72 606 :M
1.165 .116(complements; those that inherit XH, consisting of a not-necessarily-lexical head)J
72 620 :M
.607 .061(preceded by exactly one maximal phrase \(either a specifier or a filler\); and)J
72 634 :M
1.027 .103(modification constructions, consisting of a head word or phrase which is either)J
72 650 :M
.728 .073(preceded or followed by a modifier.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.13(7)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.635 .063( We return to XH constructions briefly below.)J
108 672 :M
1.132 .113(The VP construction is one of four constructions that inherit HC. The other)J
72 686 :M
1.543 .154(three license preposition phrases, adjective phrases and noun+complement)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 10 10
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 10 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 10)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 86 :M
1.187 .119(\(roughly multi-word 'n-bar'\) structures. All headed constructions)J
f98 sf
0 -6 rm
.231(8)A
0 6 rm
.105 .011( )J
f60 sf
1.574 .157(are constrained)J
72 100 :M
.942 .094(by the following four principles.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
(9)S
0 3 rm
72 128 :M
f60 sf
(\(I\))S
108 128 :M
.513 .051(HEAD FEATURE PRINCIPLE \()J
f168 sf
.11(head)A
f60 sf
.115(\):)A
108 142 :M
.762 .076(The values of the synsem|intrinsic|syn|head path of a head daugher and its)J
108 156 :M
1.477 .148(mother are shared.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.506(10)A
0 3 rm
108 184 :M
f60 sf
1.341 .134(Since every lexical construction will have a 'synsem' attribute whose value)J
72 198 :M
1.175 .117(has an 'intrinsic' attribute whose value has a 'syn\(tax\)' attribute whose value has a)J
72 212 :M
1.133 .113('head' attribute, )J
f168 sf
.335(head)A
f60 sf
.909 .091( will have the effect of percolating the value of the path ending)J
72 226 :M
.922 .092(in 'head' from a lexical item to the external structure)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.218(11)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.81 .081( of a phrase headed by that)J
72 242 :M
.738 .074(item. All head values have cat\(egory\) {n, v, p, a,...} and lexical-head features.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.307(12)A
0 6 rm
72 256 :M
f60 sf
1.25 .125(Among the head attributes of verbs in particular are 'v\(erbal\)-infl\(ection\)' {finite,)J
72 270 :M
.666 .067(bare stem, present participle, ...}, voice {active, passive}, aux\(iliary\) {+, \320}, and so)J
72 286 :M
.257(on.)A
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.187(13)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.867 .087( Max\(imality\) and lex\(icality\) are not head features; they are )J
f87 sf
.205(level)A
f60 sf
1.189 .119( features.)J
72 314 :M
-.024(\(II\))A
108 314 :M
.394 .039(SUBSET PRINCIPLE \()J
f168 sf
.075(subset)A
f60 sf
.089(\):)A
108 328 :M
.729 .073(Set values of a head daughter are subsets of corresponding values of its)J
108 342 :M
.58(mother.)A
108 370 :M
.93 .093(Sem\(antics\) values and val\(ence\) values are sets. Adjuncts are treated in CG)J
72 384 :M
.931 .093(in terms of valence augmentations. The )J
f168 sf
.281(subset)A
f60 sf
1.06 .106( principle allows the semantics and)J
72 398 :M
1.313 .131(valence values of the phrasal mother to contain adjunct elements not present in the)J
72 412 :M
.939 .094(corresponding attributes of the head daughter, while at the same time requiring that)J
72 426 :M
1.227 .123(all set values of the mother constituent include all the elements of the)J
72 440 :M
.973 .097(corresponding set values of the head daughter.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.372(14)A
0 3 rm
72 468 :M
f60 sf
-.029(\(III\))A
108 468 :M
.686 .069(VALENCE PRINCIPLE \()J
f168 sf
.112(val)A
f60 sf
.142(\):)A
108 482 :M
1.021 .102(A local filler daughter's synsem value is shared with the synsem value of a)J
108 496 :M
1.763 .176(valence element of the mother.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.681(15)A
0 3 rm
108 524 :M
f60 sf
.783 .078(The )J
f168 sf
.667 .067(val )J
f60 sf
1.079 .108(principle assures that all constituents appearing in local positions are)J
72 538 :M
1.115 .111(in fact complements. This corresponds roughly to the coherence constraint on)J
72 554 :M
1.534 .153(functional structures in LFG.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.237(16)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
1.06 .106( Valence members marked 'gf subj' and 'loc +' will)J
72 568 :M
.934 .093(unify with the subject daughter of the Subject Predicate construction \(see section)J
72 582 :M
.846 .085(3.3.3\); those marked 'loc +' will unify with right sister fillers in the case of HC)J
72 596 :M
1.008 .101(phrases \(see section 3.3.1\); those marked 'loc \320' will unify with left-sister fillers in)J
72 610 :M
1.17 .117('extraction' constructions \(see section 3.5.2 \).)J
72 638 :M
.436(\(IV\))A
108 638 :M
1.015 .102(MAXIMALITY PRINCIPLES \()J
f168 sf
.206(max)A
f60 sf
.191(\):)A
108 652 :M
.472 .047(A. Heads are max \320.)J
108 666 :M
.764 .076(B. Fillers are max +.)J
108 680 :M
.518 .052(C. Specifiers are max +.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 11 11
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 11 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 11)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
108 82 :M
1.198 .12(The CG notion of maximality corresponds roughly to the notion of maximal)J
72 96 :M
.677 .068(projection in X-bar approaches. However, in CG it is possible, by judicious)J
72 110 :M
1.282 .128(underspecification of the max feature, to avoid the empirically unmotivated)J
72 124 :M
.777 .078(stacking of non-branching constituents required by X-bar theory in cases like)J
72 138 :M
([)S
f98 sf
0 2 rm
(np\312)S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
([)S
f98 sf
0 2 rm
(n')S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
(\312[)S
f98 sf
0 2 rm
(n)S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.028 .003(\312she]]] or [)J
f98 sf
0 2 rm
(np\312)S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
([)S
f98 sf
0 2 rm
(n')S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
(\312[)S
f98 sf
0 2 rm
(n)S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.04 .004(\312Joe]]]. Certain lexical constituents \(e.g., personal pronouns)J
72 152 :M
.738 .074(and proper names\) are allowed to be max + because, lacking NP-internal sisters, they)J
72 166 :M
1.059 .106(are not 'heads' and hence are not required to be 'max \320'.)J
72 202 :M
.817 .082(3.3 Valence)J
f142 sf
.121 .012(. )J
f179 sf
.066 .007( )J
f60 sf
.739 .074(In a construct licensed by the VP construction of Figure 2 or 3, the head)J
72 216 :M
1.129 .113(daughter and the external feature structure both have a valence attribute, 'val', since)J
72 230 :M
.818 .082(every lexical verb construction will introduce such a feature and )J
f168 sf
.233(subset)A
f60 sf
.775 .078( will project)J
72 244 :M
.87 .087(it to the mother. The value of a valence attribute is a set of AVMs. We call this)J
72 258 :M
.514 .051(value a )J
f98 sf
1.142 .114(VALENCE SET)J
f60 sf
.575 .057( and its members )J
f98 sf
1.407 .141(VALENCE ELEMENTS)J
f60 sf
.46 .046(. It follows from )J
f168 sf
.194(val)A
f60 sf
.626 .063( and)J
72 274 :M
f168 sf
.331(max)A
f60 sf
.895 .089( that all syntactically realized valence elements are max +.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.35(17)A
0 6 rm
108 296 :M
f60 sf
.807 .081(The valence set of the left or head daughter of the VP construction is a subset)J
72 310 :M
.601 .06(of the valence set of its mother, the VP, as assured by )J
f168 sf
.219(subset)A
f60 sf
.508 .051(. The AVMs)J
72 324 :M
1.104 .11(constituting the valence elements of a predicator \(or its phrasal mother\) represent)J
72 338 :M
.761 .076(syntactic and semantic co-occurrences of the kind usually referred to as)J
72 352 :M
.847 .085(subcatgorizational \(in a broad sense, including semantics\). The valence set of a)J
72 366 :M
.896 .09(lexical predicator in CG thus encodes much of the same information as the subcat or)J
72 380 :M
1.138 .114(argument structure list in HPSG.)J
108 402 :M
.943 .094(Valence elements are, thus, satisfied in one of two ways: either there is)J
72 416 :M
1.379 .138(somewhere in the sentence a constituent whose external synsem value unifies with)J
72 430 :M
1.24 .124(the element, or the element is satisfied by a null complement construction, which)J
72 444 :M
.962 .096(provides for its direct pragmatic interpretation.)J
72 480 :M
1.147 .115(3.4 Arguments and adjuncts)J
f142 sf
.075(.)A
f179 sf
.068 .007( )J
f60 sf
1.021 .102(Arguments and adjuncts arise in distinct ways.)J
72 494 :M
1.104 .11(Arguments are valence elements of the minimal lexical verb. In the case of the VP)J
72 508 :M
.544 .054(these are made part of the valence set of the VP by )J
f168 sf
.204(subset)A
f60 sf
.536 .054(. In the sentence)J
72 530 :M
(\(18\))S
108 530 :M
1.067 .107(Marion gave Sidney some candy in the car this morning.)J
72 552 :M
f87 sf
1.667 .167(Marion, Sidney )J
f60 sf
1.23 .123(and )J
f87 sf
1.403 .14(some candy )J
f60 sf
1.559 .156(are each complements of the argument type. They)J
72 566 :M
.707 .071(are found in the valence set of the VP in 18 because this set is a superset of the)J
72 580 :M
.944 .094(valence set of the lexical verb )J
f87 sf
.895 .09(give, )J
f60 sf
1.354 .135(which has agent, theme and recipient arguments)J
72 594 :M
.974 .097(specified as part of its minimal \(lexical\) construction.)J
108 616 :M
.969 .097(Adjuncts are contributed by particular constructions which unify with a)J
72 630 :M
1.232 .123(verbal structure, specifying additional information about both the valence value)J
72 644 :M
1.332 .133(and the sem value. The phrases )J
f87 sf
.932 .093(in the car )J
f60 sf
1.311 .131(and )J
f87 sf
1.575 .157(this morning )J
f60 sf
1.569 .157(in 18 are adjuncts.)J
108 666 :M
1.233 .123(Adjunct licensing constructions are exemplified by the Setting construction,)J
72 682 :M
1.162 .116(schematically illustrated in Figure 4.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.188(18)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.903 .09( In unifying with a verbal constituent whose)J
72 696 :M
.738 .074(semantics already contains the scene indexed as I, this construction adds a scene,)J
72 710 :M
.684 .068(typically a locational or temporal setting, indexed as II, which takes I as an argument)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 12 12
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 12 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 12)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.626 .063(and adds a valence element whose semantics corresponds to II. )J
f168 sf
.198(Subset)A
f60 sf
.653 .065( assures that)J
72 96 :M
.969 .097(these new semantic and valence properties percolate up the line of verbal heads.)J
72 110 :M
1.203 .12(Figure 5 shows a schematic representation of the minimal verb )J
f87 sf
.278(arrive)A
f60 sf
.967 .097( and Figure 6)J
72 124 :M
1.439 .144(shows the augmented verb )J
f87 sf
.305(arrive)A
f60 sf
1.277 .128( resulting form the unification of the structures in)J
72 138 :M
1.183 .118(Figures 4 and 5, with the minimal entry for the preposition )J
f87 sf
.301(before)A
f60 sf
1.383 .138( \(not shown\))J
72 152 :M
.899 .09(providing the circumstantial predicate. \('{ }' indicates a set of unspecified)J
72 166 :M
.893 .089(membership, not the empty set, as in HPSG.\))J
236 188 :M
.836 .084(FIGURE 4 ABOUT HERE)J
72 216 :M
.643 .064(In Figure 4, the scene indexed I)J
f98 sf
0 -3 rm
.081 .008( )J
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.794 .079(appears as an argument \(participant\) in the scene)J
72 230 :M
.551 .055(indexed II.)J
236 258 :M
.836 .084(FIGURE 5 ABOUT HERE)J
236 286 :M
.836 .084(FIGURE 6 ABOUT HERE)J
72 328 :M
1.337 .134(3.5 Mechanisms for the satisfaction of valence requirements)J
f142 sf
.096(.)A
f179 sf
.087 .009( )J
f60 sf
2.219 .222(Grammatical functions)J
72 342 :M
1.074 .107(are typically not assigned to semantic arguments within the construction)J
72 356 :M
1.017 .102(representing a minimal lexeme \(e.g., )J
f87 sf
.226(give)A
f60 sf
.892 .089(\), but are assigned to these arguments by)J
72 370 :M
1.485 .148(unification of the minimal lexical construction with such linking constructions as)J
72 384 :M
1.109 .111(passive or recipient \('dative shift'\). In CG the linking constructions, which assign)J
72 398 :M
1.222 .122(grammatical functions and \(frequently\) syntactic shapes to the semantic \('thematic'\))J
72 412 :M
.82 .082(requirements of a lexical predicator, play a role analogous to that of the linking)J
72 426 :M
1.133 .113(theory in LFG and the corresponding mechanisms in other frameworks \(e.g., Levin)J
72 440 :M
.68 .068(1986, Bresnan and Kanerva 1989 for LFG; Davis 1996 for HPSG; see also Grimshaw)J
72 454 :M
.695 .07(1990, Jackendoff 1990, Kiparsky 1987, Pinker 1989, Van Valin 1990, 1993\). Thus, in the)J
72 468 :M
.856 .086(several examples of \(19\), by unifying different combinations of the transitive \(a, b\),)J
72 482 :M
.748 .075(passive \(c, d\), caused motion \(a, c\) and recipient \(b, d\) linking constructions with the)J
72 496 :M
.989 .099(valence of the appropriate forms of the verb )J
f87 sf
.262(give)A
f60 sf
1.035 .103(, we get the various assignments of)J
72 510 :M
1.508 .151(thematic arguments to grammatical functions illustrated.)J
108 538 :M
(\(19\))S
139 538 :M
(a.)S
166 538 :M
1.082 .108(Sidney gave some candy to Marion. \(Transitive, Caused Motion\))J
139 552 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 552 :M
1.163 .116(Sidney gave Marion some candy. \(Transitive, Recipient\))J
139 566 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 566 :M
.775 .078(Marion was given some candy \(by Sidney\). \(Passive, Recipient\))J
139 580 :M
-.33(d.)A
166 580 :M
.742 .074(Some candy was given to Marion \(by Sidney\). \(Passive, Caused Motion\))J
72 608 :M
.908 .091(There are, of course, predicates which provide exceptions to these alternations. For)J
72 622 :M
1.52 .152(example, )J
f87 sf
.282(contribute)A
f60 sf
1.098 .11( does not occur in the Recipient configuration of 19c,d, the)J
72 636 :M
1.68 .168(passive verb )J
f87 sf
.472(rumored)A
f60 sf
1.445 .144( does not have an active counterpart and )J
f87 sf
.416(resemble)A
f60 sf
1.157 .116( has no)J
72 650 :M
.79 .079(passive version, as illustrated in 20, 21 and 22, respectively.)J
108 678 :M
(\(20\))S
148 678 :M
.924 .092(*She contributed the Red Cross $50.)J
108 692 :M
(\(21\))S
148 692 :M
1.135 .114(*Several disgruntled advisors rumored the President to have acted rashly.)J
108 706 :M
(\(22\))S
148 706 :M
.547 .055(*Max is resembled by a gorilla.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 13 13
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 13 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 13)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 96 :M
.545 .055(In CG, facts like those illustrated in \(20-22\) are accounted for by specifying in the)J
72 110 :M
1.139 .114(minimal lexical entries for such verbs fixed links between semantic and)J
72 124 :M
.688 .069(grammatical relations. For example, a sentence like \(20\) is blocked by the goal)J
72 138 :M
1.165 .116(argument of )J
f87 sf
.271(contribute)A
f60 sf
1.224 .122( being assigned an oblique grammatical function and the)J
72 152 :M
.681 .068(syntax of a preposition phrase headed by )J
f87 sf
.159(to)A
f60 sf
.324 .032( in the )J
f98 sf
.233(MINIMAL)A
f60 sf
.65 .065( lexical entry, this)J
72 168 :M
1.575 .157(specification preventing unification with the Recipient \(linking\) construction.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.459(19)A
0 6 rm
72 210 :M
f60 sf
1.064 .106(3.6 Valence satisfaction continued: the subject-predicate construction. The Subject-)J
72 224 :M
.851 .085(Predicate \(S-P\) construction exemplifies the second large family of headed)J
72 238 :M
1.142 .114(constructions, those which inherit XH. These constructions contain exactly two)J
72 252 :M
.532 .053(daughters: the second is the head and the first is either a specifier, e.g., [[)J
f87 sf
.148(the)A
f60 sf
.835 .083(] [answer)J
72 268 :M
.654 .065(to my question]] or a filler, e.g., [[)J
f87 sf
1.066 .107(which book)J
f60 sf
.749 .075(] [she asked for]].)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.16(20)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.658 .066( The S-P construction)J
72 282 :M
.966 .097(is shown in Figure 7.)J
212 304 :M
1.077 .108(INSERT FIGURE 7 ABOUT HERE)J
108 332 :M
.767 .077(As a head feature, 'cat v' will be shared by the mother and the head daughter)J
72 346 :M
.165<28>A
f168 sf
.275(head)A
f60 sf
.798 .08(\). The feature abbreviated 'srs' may be read 'subject requirement satisfied'. It)J
72 360 :M
1.064 .106(distinguishes clausal structures from those with a controlled or raised subject.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.209(21)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.825 .082( The)J
72 374 :M
.818 .082(semantics and valence values of the head daughter of S-P are subsets of the)J
72 388 :M
1.026 .103(corresponding values of the mother \()J
f168 sf
.264(subset)A
f60 sf
.797 .08(\). Whether the head daughter of an S-P)J
72 402 :M
.661 .066(construct is licensed by VP or by a simple lexical verb, its subject requirement is)J
72 416 :M
.94 .094(satisfied its left sister. Thus, while the VP construction interacts with the head)J
72 430 :M
.949 .095(principle to ensure that non-subject complements can be realized as right sisters of)J
72 444 :M
.842 .084(the lexical verb, the S-P construction ensures that the subject is realized as left sister)J
72 458 :M
.857 .086(to the VP \(or to a lexical verb which functions effectively as a one-word VP\).)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.208(22)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.603 .06( Since)J
72 472 :M
.738 .074(the S-P subject is realized and not extracted, it is local \('loc +'\).)J
72 508 :M
1.413 .141(3.7 Valence satisfaction and semantic composition)J
f142 sf
.092(.)A
f179 sf
.084 .008( )J
f60 sf
1.775 .178(Unification variables connecting)J
72 522 :M
1.214 .121(the members of a valence set with elements of semantic representations control the)J
72 536 :M
1.265 .127(fit between the semantics of complement constituents and the semantic)J
72 550 :M
1.013 .101(representation of the sentence. Figure 8 presents a simplified version of the)J
72 564 :M
1.303 .13(minimal lexical entry for )J
f87 sf
.322(give)A
f60 sf
.193(.)A
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.289(23)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
1.03 .103( The sem value is a set with four members, each an)J
72 578 :M
1.102 .11(AVM representing a minimal predication, consisting of a frame plus its participants)J
72 592 :M
.622 .062(or arguments \(args\), and each appearing with an index \(I, II, III, IV\). The variables A,)J
72 606 :M
1.306 .131(B, C, which denote the minimal arguments, reappear in the valence elements.)J
72 620 :M
1.382 .138(When the synsem values of the valence elements are unified with the synsem)J
72 634 :M
1.452 .145(values of complement constituents, via )J
f168 sf
.343(val)A
f60 sf
1.156 .116(, the sem values of the constituents are)J
72 650 :M
1.271 .127(unified with the appropriate argument positions in the external semantics value.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.429(24)A
0 6 rm
72 664 :M
f60 sf
.81 .081(The external semantics value of the verb will, via )J
f168 sf
.256(subset)A
f60 sf
.665 .066(, become a part of that of the)J
72 678 :M
1.064 .106(VP and hence of the sentence.)J
212 706 :M
1.077 .108(INSERT FIGURE 8 ABOUT HERE)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 14 14
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 14 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 14)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 96 :M
1.237 .124(3.8 Left-isolation)J
f142 sf
.154 .015(. )J
f179 sf
.084 .008( )J
f60 sf
1.205 .12(A wide range of phenomena collected under the common term)J
72 110 :M
1.058 .106(extraction are treated in CG with the left-isolation construction and the more)J
72 124 :M
1.095 .109(detailed constructions which inherit it. The left-isolation \(LI\) construction itself is)J
72 138 :M
1.177 .118(heir to the XH construction, which dominates the part of the inheritance hierarchy)J
72 152 :M
1.063 .106(that includes the S-P construction. Left-isolated constructions include clauses with)J
72 166 :M
1.376 .138(fronted wh constituents, topicalization structures, and similar phenomena. This)J
72 180 :M
.68 .068(topic is too extensive to be discussed fully in the present paper; the brief remarks of)J
72 194 :M
1.317 .132(this section are intended merely to show how certain left-isolation phenomena)J
72 208 :M
1.322 .132(provide crucial motivation for the formulation of the valence feature and to)J
72 222 :M
1.176 .118(provide background for later discussion of the )J
f87 sf
.885 .089(What's X doing Y )J
f60 sf
.318(construction,)A
72 236 :M
.867 .087(which, because of some of its internal properties, always occurs in interaction with a)J
72 250 :M
1.882 .188(left-isolation structure.)J
108 272 :M
.753 .075(The conception of long distance dependency in CG differs from that of GB.)J
72 286 :M
.804 .08(Long distance dependencies are conceived in CG in a way rather like the notion of)J
72 300 :M
.932 .093(functional uncertainty in LFG \(Kaplan and Zaenen 1989\), in that a long distance)J
72 314 :M
.646 .065(dependency is considered as obtaining, not between a constituent and a gap \(an)J
72 328 :M
1.29 .129(unoccupied site in the constituent structure where the 'displaced' constituent would)J
72 342 :M
1.097 .11(otherwise occur\), but rather between the constituent and an element which is not)J
72 356 :M
.857 .086(part of the )J
f87 sf
.309(constituent)A
f60 sf
1.148 .115( structure of the sentence at all. In the functional uncertainty)J
72 370 :M
.91 .091(case the item to which the extracted constituent is related is a functional structure;)J
72 384 :M
.479 .048(in the CG case, it is a valence element. Pollard and Sag \(1994: 376ff\) propose a gapless)J
72 398 :M
1.257 .126(approach to extraction for HPSG, which involves removing the slashed item from)J
72 412 :M
1.188 .119(the valence list. In all these approaches, the left-isolated \('moved'\) element is)J
72 426 :M
1.032 .103(interpreted as a constituent directly satisfying a complement or adjunct function,)J
72 440 :M
1.051 .105(rather than as a constituent coindexed with an inaudible trace which in turn)J
72 454 :M
1.431 .143(satisfies the function.)J
72 484 :M
1.425 .143(3.9 The left isolation construction: preliminaries)J
f142 sf
.141 .014(. )J
f60 sf
1.674 .167(The left-isolation construction is)J
72 498 :M
.919 .092(defined as a verbal structure with two daughters in which the external AVM of the)J
72 514 :M
1.261 .126(left daughter unifies with some valence requirement )J
f98 sf
.361(WITHIN)A
f60 sf
1.129 .113( the right daughter.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.438(25)A
0 6 rm
72 528 :M
f60 sf
.952 .095(The valence set in question may, but need not, be the valence set in the external)J
72 542 :M
.682 .068(synsem of the right daughter. If it is not, then a long distance dependency obtains)J
72 556 :M
1.456 .146(between the left-isolated constituent and the valence element \(somewhere within)J
72 570 :M
1.126 .113(the right daughter\) with which it unifies.)J
108 592 :M
.894 .089(To develop this idea more precisely, along with some notation to express it, it)J
72 606 :M
.753 .075(will be useful to define two simpler concepts. Recall that an AVM a)J
0 2 rm
.249(1)A
0 -2 rm
.272 .027( is a )J
f98 sf
.337(VALENCE)A
72 621 :M
.286(REQUIREMENT)A
f60 sf
.732 .073( of another AVM a)J
0 2 rm
.253(0)A
0 -2 rm
.381 .038( iff a)J
0 2 rm
.253(1)A
0 -2 rm
.617 .062( is a member of the valence set of a)J
0 2 rm
.38(0.)A
0 -2 rm
108 644 :M
.914 .091(Suppose now we have three AVMs a)J
0 2 rm
.258(0)A
0 -2 rm
.396 .04(, a)J
0 2 rm
.258(1)A
0 -2 rm
.534 .053( and a)J
0 2 rm
.396 .04(2, )J
0 -2 rm
1.067 .107(where a)J
0 2 rm
.258(1)A
0 -2 rm
.651 .065( is a valence)J
72 659 :M
1.393 .139(requirement of a)J
0 2 rm
.341(0)A
0 -2 rm
.707 .071( and a)J
0 2 rm
.341(2)A
0 -2 rm
.978 .098( is a valence requirement of a)J
0 2 rm
.341(1)A
0 -2 rm
.886 .089(. We have in mind such)J
72 674 :M
1.098 .11(sentences as)J
72 702 :M
(\(23\))S
108 702 :M
1.056 .106(What do you think she asked him to do?)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 15 15
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 15 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 15)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.971 .097(Since )J
f87 sf
.906 .091(what )J
f60 sf
1.061 .106(satisfies a valence requirement of )J
f87 sf
.285(do)A
f60 sf
.774 .077(, it can also be seen as satisfying a)J
72 96 :M
1.46 .146(valence requirement of a valence requirement of )J
f87 sf
1.202 .12(asked )J
f60 sf
1.733 .173(and a valence requirement)J
72 110 :M
1.353 .135(of a valence requirement of a valence requirement of )J
f87 sf
.324(think.)A
f60 sf
1.052 .105( We would like to have)J
72 124 :M
.973 .097(a more succinct way of talking about the relation of a)J
0 2 rm
.32(2)A
0 -2 rm
.145 .015( )J
f87 sf
.959 .096(what )J
f60 sf
.741 .074(to a)J
0 2 rm
.32(0)A
0 -2 rm
.145 .015( )J
f87 sf
.252(think,)A
f60 sf
.792 .079( and also to)J
72 139 :M
.667 .067(have a clear way of talking about the general case, in which there is an arbitrary)J
72 153 :M
1.197 .12(sequence of AVMs intervening between a)J
0 2 rm
.286(0)A
0 -2 rm
.592 .059( and a)J
0 2 rm
.333(n)A
0 -2 rm
.941 .094(, each AVM in the sequence being)J
72 168 :M
.888 .089(a valence requirement of the preceding one. In such a circumstance we will want to)J
72 182 :M
.448 .045(say that a)J
0 2 rm
.186(n)A
0 -2 rm
.219 .022( is an )J
f98 sf
1.027 .103(EMBEDDED VALENCE REQUIREMENT)J
f60 sf
.24 .024( of a)J
0 2 rm
.159(0)A
0 -2 rm
.5 .05(. More precisely, an AVM)J
72 197 :M
.135(a)A
0 2 rm
.157(n)A
0 -2 rm
.186 .019( is an )J
f98 sf
.567 .057(EMBEDDED VALENCE REQUIREMENT AT DEPTH N )J
f60 sf
.394 .039(of a distinct AVM a)J
0 2 rm
.135(0)A
0 -2 rm
.203 .02( iff a)J
0 2 rm
.135(0)A
0 -2 rm
.403 .04( and)J
72 212 :M
.233(a)A
0 2 rm
.271(n)A
0 -2 rm
.706 .071( are members of a sequence of AVMs )A
0 -2 rm
.425 .042( such that, for 1 )J
cF
f211 sf
.042(\243)A
setfont
.425 .042( i )J
cF
f211 sf
.042(\243)A
setfont
.425 .042( n, a)J
0 2 rm
.135(i)A
0 -2 rm
.332 .033( is a)J
72 229 :M
1.291 .129(valence requirement of a)J
0 2 rm
.239(i-1)A
0 -2 rm
.159(.)A
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.425(26)A
0 6 rm
108 252 :M
f60 sf
.844 .084(Though we will not have occasion in this paper to specify any particular)J
72 266 :M
.933 .093(numerical depth of valence embedding, we will be interested in the idea of one)J
72 280 :M
.891 .089(AVM being an embedded valence requirement of another at an arbitrary depth. In)J
72 294 :M
.738 .074(place of saying of two AVMs that 'a)J
0 2 rm
.286(n)A
0 -2 rm
.825 .083( is an embedded valence requirement of a)J
0 2 rm
.246(0)A
0 -2 rm
.441 .044( at)J
72 309 :M
.803 .08(an arbitrary depth', we will just say that 'a)J
0 2 rm
.314(n)A
0 -2 rm
.997 .1( is an embedded valence requirement \(or)J
72 324 :M
1.495 .149(element\) of a)J
0 2 rm
.431(0)A
0 -2 rm
.394('.)A
108 347 :M
.868 .087(We use the concept of an embedded valence element \(at an arbitrary depth\) in)J
72 361 :M
1.189 .119(formulating the Left Isolation construction. Intuitively, in a left isolation structure)J
72 375 :M
.762 .076(there are two daughters and the left daughter \(e.g., a wh-phrase\) unifies with an)J
72 389 :M
1.033 .103(embedded valence requirement of the right daughter. The 'arbitrary depth' feature)J
72 403 :M
.728 .073(of valence embedding is what furnishes the arbitrary distance covered by a long)J
72 417 :M
.712 .071(distance dependency.)J
72 453 :M
1.412 .141(3.10 The left-isolation construction)J
f142 sf
.102(.)A
f179 sf
.093 .009( )J
f60 sf
1.265 .127(We want an explicit notation for valence)J
72 467 :M
1.103 .11(embedding in order to represent constructions, such as left-isolation, which)J
72 481 :M
1.59 .159(incorporate this notion.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.254(27)A
0 3 rm
f168 sf
.154 .015( )J
f60 sf
1.079 .108( We first define a unary operation VAL on feature)J
72 495 :M
.305 .031(structures such that for two feature structures [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.072(p)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.051(],)A
f211 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.058([)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.083(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.099 .01(], [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.072(p)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.325 .032(] equals VAL[)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.083(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.199 .02(] if and only if)J
72 509 :M
.111([)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.157(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.057 .006( )J
f60 sf
.477 .048(] is a valence requirement of [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.137(p)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.092(\312].)A
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.249(28)A
0 3 rm
72 540 :M
f60 sf
.115(\(24\))A
f98 sf
0 2 rm
.164(def)A
0 -2 rm
144 540 :M
f60 sf
-.128([)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
-.159(p)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
-.072( )A
f60 sf
-.187(] = VAL[)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
-.183(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
-.072( )A
f60 sf
-.117(] iff [)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
-.159(p)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
-.072( )A
f60 sf
-.148(] U [val {[)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
-.183(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
-.072( )A
f60 sf
-.118(]} )A
f211 sf
-.296(\310)A
f60 sf
-.126( { }] = [)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
-.159(p)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
-.072( )A
f60 sf
-.128(])A
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
-.289(29)A
0 3 rm
72 568 :M
f60 sf
.428 .043(When [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.088(p)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.295 .029(] = VAL[)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.101(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.329 .033(], we say equivalently that [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.101(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.323 .032(] is valence embedded in [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.088(p)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.036 .004( )J
f60 sf
.071(])A
f211 sf
.048 .005( )J
f60 sf
.459 .046(at depth)J
72 582 :M
.656 .066(one. An expression such as VAL)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.154(3)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.137([)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.194(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.07 .007( )J
f60 sf
.616 .062(] will denote a feature structure of which [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.194(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.07 .007( )J
f60 sf
.336 .034(] is a)J
72 596 :M
1.116 .112(valence member of a valence member of a valence member. Using the Kleene star)J
72 610 :M
1.159 .116(notation, the expression VAL*[)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.241(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.087 .009( )J
f60 sf
.79 .079(] denotes a feature structure in which [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.241(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.095(\312)A
f60 sf
.803 .08(] is valence)J
72 624 :M
.365 .036(embedded at an arbitrary depth.)J
108 652 :M
.855 .085(To the notion of valence embedding at an arbitrary depth we add the notion)J
72 666 :M
1.171 .117(of a constraint on the embedding feature structures.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.234(30)A
0 3 rm
f142 sf
.083 .008( )J
f60 sf
1.564 .156(The following definition)J
72 681 :M
.769 .077(provides us with an explicit notation for the idea of a feature structure VAL)J
f98 sf
0 -3 rm
.231(n)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.159([)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.226(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.081 .008( )J
f60 sf
.534 .053(] in)J
72 695 :M
.885 .089(which another feature structure [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.21(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.076 .008( )J
f60 sf
.725 .072(] is valence embedded at depth n, where each)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 16 16
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 16 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 16)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 83 :M
.652 .065(feature structure in the sequence of valence embeddings VAL)J
f98 sf
0 -3 rm
.162(n)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.111([)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.158(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.057 .006( )J
f60 sf
.613 .061(], VAL)J
f98 sf
0 -3 rm
.127(n-)A
0 3 rm
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.125(1)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.111([)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.158(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
.057 .006( )J
f60 sf
.382 .038(], ...,)J
72 97 :M
.124(VAL[)A
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.096(a)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.326 .033(] satisfies the constraint [)J
f222 sf
0 2 rm
.083(c)A
0 -2 rm
f120 sf
( )S
f60 sf
.118(].)A
72 125 :M
(\(25\) )S
108 125 :M
.267 .027(For n = 0, 1, ...,)J
108 143 :M
.071 .007( VAL)J
f98 sf
0 -6 rm
(n)S
0 6 rm
0 6 rm
([)S
0 -6 rm
f233 sf
0 6 rm
(c)S
0 -6 rm
f120 sf
0 6 rm
( )S
0 -6 rm
f98 sf
0 6 rm
(])S
0 -6 rm
0 2 rm
( )S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
([)S
f244 sf
0 2 rm
(a)S
0 -2 rm
f98 sf
0 2 rm
( )S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.066 .007(] =df. VAL)J
f98 sf
0 -6 rm
(n)S
0 6 rm
f60 sf
([)S
f222 sf
0 2 rm
(a)S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.054 .005( ] such that VAL)J
f98 sf
0 -6 rm
(i)S
0 6 rm
f60 sf
([)S
f222 sf
0 2 rm
(a)S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.02(\312]\312=\312VAL)A
f98 sf
0 -6 rm
(i)S
0 6 rm
f60 sf
([)S
f222 sf
0 2 rm
(a)S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.035 .004(\312] U [)J
f244 sf
(c)S
f255 sf
0 2 rm
( )S
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.016(]\312\(1\312)A
cF
f211 sf
.016(\243)A
setfont
.016(\312i\312)A
cF
f211 sf
.016(\243)A
setfont
.016(\312n\))A
108 169 :M
1.318 .132(As mentioned above, the left-isolation construction unifies its left daughter)J
72 183 :M
.825 .083(with a valence element embedded at an arbitrary depth in its right daughter.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.358(31)A
0 3 rm
212 211 :M
f60 sf
1.077 .108(INSERT FIGURE 9 ABOUT HERE)J
108 239 :M
.785 .079(Figure 9 says that a left isolation structure is a verbal constituent with two)J
72 253 :M
.906 .091(daughters, whose left daughter satisfies an embedded valence requirement of its)J
72 267 :M
1.004 .1(right daughter. The external semantics includes the semantics of the right daughter)J
72 281 :M
.135<28>A
f168 sf
.199(subset)A
f60 sf
.655 .065(\). In the right daughter we encounter the indication of an arbitrarily deeply)J
72 295 :M
1.306 .131(embedded valence requirement which is unified)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.218(32)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.788 .079( with the left daughter of the LI)J
72 309 :M
1.163 .116(construction; this notation expresses the CG formulation of the pre-theoretical idea)J
72 323 :M
.963 .096(of unbounded dependency. Turning our attention to the left daughter, we note that)J
72 337 :M
.947 .095(it is stipulated to be non-local, contrasting, for example, with the subject constituent)J
72 351 :M
1.19 .119(of the S-P construction, which is 'loc +'.)J
72 383 :M
1.4 .14(3.11 Inversion and non-subject wh-questions.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.196(33)A
0 6 rm
f168 sf
.134 .013( )J
f60 sf
1.107 .111(The WXDY examples of 3 contain)J
72 397 :M
.777 .078(VPs licensed by the VP construction, clauses licensed by the S-P construction and left)J
72 411 :M
1.03 .103(isolated structures \(e.g. wh-questions\) which instantiate the LI construction and)J
72 425 :M
.851 .085(which are directly licensed by more specific constructions that inherit the LI)J
72 439 :M
.326(construction.)A
108 467 :M
.809 .081(The )J
f87 sf
.251(be)A
f60 sf
.969 .097( of WXDY must head some kind of verb-headable phrase in order to)J
72 481 :M
1.001 .1(occur in a sentence. When the )J
f87 sf
.371(what)A
f60 sf
1.321 .132( element of the WXDY construction occurs as)J
72 495 :M
.823 .082(the left-isolated element of an embedded question, as in 3c, the )J
f87 sf
.436 .044(be )J
f60 sf
.916 .092(of WXDY heads a)J
72 509 :M
1.613 .161(VP \()J
f87 sf
1.875 .188(is doing without a kitchen)J
f60 sf
1.66 .166(\). When, however, the )J
f87 sf
.591(what)A
f60 sf
2.237 .224( element is left-isolated)J
72 523 :M
1.306 .131(in a main clause question and WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.314(be)A
f60 sf
.797 .08( is the main verb, as in 3a, the )J
f87 sf
.314(be)A
f60 sf
1.636 .164( element)J
72 537 :M
1.632 .163(heads an inverted clause \()J
f87 sf
1.484 .148(is this scratch doing)J
f60 sf
.979 .098( ...\). \(When, the )J
f87 sf
.469(what)A
f60 sf
1.376 .138( element is left-)J
72 551 :M
1.177 .118(isolated in a main clause question and WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.278(be)A
f60 sf
.797 .08( is not the main verb, as in 3b, then)J
72 565 :M
1.467 .147(there will be subject-aux inversion, but not involving WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.323(be)A
f60 sf
.221(.\))A
f87 sf
.172 .017( )J
f60 sf
2.041 .204(The inverted)J
72 579 :M
.851 .085(structures will be of a single type: a main clause, non-subject wh-question. Thus,)J
72 593 :M
.367(WXDY-)A
f87 sf
.227(be)A
f60 sf
.809 .081( always occurs either as the head of a VP or in a non-subject wh-question)J
72 607 :M
1.431 .143(\(in which WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.271(be)A
f60 sf
.923 .092( may or may not be the inverted verb\).)J
108 629 :M
1.226 .123(Non-subject wh-questions, such as 26, involve both left isolation and)J
72 643 :M
.573(inversion.)A
108 665 :M
(\(26\))S
144 665 :M
.414 .041([What] [did you put there]?)J
72 687 :M
.85 .085(The overall structure of 26 is licensed by the Left Isolation construction and that of)J
72 701 :M
1.023 .102(its right daughter by the Inversion \(SAI\) construction, in which the first element is a)J
72 715 :M
.812 .081(finite auxiliary and the second element is the subject. LI structures need not be)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 17 17
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 17 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 17)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.963 .096(questions, however, nor are the right daughters of LI structures necessarily inverted;)J
72 96 :M
1.032 .103(both facts are illustrated in 27a. Furthermore, inversion may occur in clauses which)J
72 110 :M
.701 .07(do not express questions, as in 27b, and questions \320 in fact main clause, wh-)J
72 124 :M
1.069 .107(questions \320 need not exhibit inversion, as in 27c.)J
108 146 :M
(\(27\))S
139 146 :M
(a.)S
166 146 :M
.865 .086(That much pizza I find it hard to believe even you would eat.)J
139 160 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 160 :M
.443 .044(Had you told me, ...)J
139 174 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 174 :M
3.171 .317(Who phoned?)J
108 204 :M
1.461 .146(To summarize, non-subject wh-questions exhibit both inversion and left)J
72 218 :M
.88 .088(isolation, but each of those patterns exists independently of the other and of this)J
72 232 :M
.993 .099(kind of question. We will need to postulate a construction for the inverted clause)J
72 246 :M
1.003 .1(pattern as we have done for the left-isolation pattern. Then we must represent the)J
72 260 :M
1.336 .134(way in which the non-subject wh-question construction inherits the two more)J
72 274 :M
1.761 .176(general constructions.)J
108 296 :M
1.029 .103(We assume a main verb analysis for English auxiliaries, according to which)J
72 310 :M
.901 .09(the complement is a verb phrase headed by a verb whose inflectional form is)J
72 324 :M
.608 .061(determined by the auxiliary \(bare stem in the case of modals, etc.\), and the CG)J
72 340 :M
1.234 .123(equivalent of a subject-to-subject-raising interpretation of the VP's subject.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.199(34)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.686 .069( From)J
72 354 :M
1.114 .111(this assumption and our treatment of valence satisfaction, as represented in the VP)J
72 368 :M
1.321 .132(construction and the surrounding text, the most natural treatment of inverted)J
72 382 :M
.845 .084(clauses gives them a flat structure in which a finite auxiliary is the left daughter, its)J
72 396 :M
.934 .093(subject is the second daughter, and any further complements of the auxiliary \320)J
72 410 :M
.486 .049(followed by clausal adjuncts \320 occur as subsequent daughters. It is possible, as in 28,)J
72 424 :M
1.163 .116(for an auxiliary verb's sole non-subject complement to be left-isolated leaving the)J
72 440 :M
.875 .088(inverted clause with no daughters beyond the finite auxiliary and its subject.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.324(35)A
0 6 rm
108 468 :M
f60 sf
(\(28\))S
144 468 :M
.626 .063([Where] [is he]?)J
108 490 :M
1.374 .137(The SAI construction, like the VP construction, inherits HC. The main)J
72 504 :M
.861 .086(features of SAI are given in Figure 10. It shows substantial similarities to the VP)J
72 518 :M
.326(construction.)A
209 540 :M
1.061 .106(INSERT FIGURE 10 ABOUT HERE)J
108 562 :M
.75 .075(The construction in Figure 10 is headed by a finite auxiliary verb, its left)J
72 576 :M
.716 .072(daughter, followed by the subject of that auxiliary and possibly other constituents \(if)J
72 590 :M
1.052 .105(required to meet valence needs\). The external semantics includes that of the head)J
72 604 :M
.956 .096(daughter and the external valence set subsumes the valence set of the head)J
72 618 :M
.732 .073(daughter, by )J
f168 sf
.201(subset)A
f60 sf
.658 .066(. \(Compare the VP construction.\) The external valence set also)J
72 632 :M
1.161 .116(contains a subject requirement and unifies this with the second daughter \320 unlike)J
72 646 :M
.912 .091(the VP construction. It also provides for the possibility of additional valence)J
72 660 :M
1.095 .11(requirements, the lot to be unified one by one with the rightmost Kleene expansion)J
72 674 :M
.815 .081(of daughters \()J
f168 sf
.22(valence)A
f60 sf
.62 .062(\). This Kleene expansion may be zero, as in 28, or may)J
72 688 :M
.661 .066(represent arguments only as in 29a, adjuncts only as in 29b, or both as in 29c.)J
108 710 :M
(\(29\))S
139 710 :M
(a.)S
166 710 :M
.318 .032(Is he ready ?)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 18 18
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 18 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 18)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
139 82 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 82 :M
.771 .077(Did she really?)J
139 96 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 96 :M
1.052 .105(Have you learned anything interesting today?)J
72 132 :M
1.059 .106(The SAI construction, like S-P and unlike VP, is marked 'srs +', reflecting the fact)J
72 146 :M
1.035 .103(that the subject is internally realized.)J
108 168 :M
1.273 .127(Leaving aside for the moment the many issues involved in the semantics of)J
72 182 :M
1.102 .11(questions, almost nothing needs to be stipulated about the non-subject wh-question)J
72 196 :M
.644 .064(construction beyond the facts already noted: that its outer structure is that of LI and)J
72 210 :M
.801 .08(its right daughter's that of SAI. We need only add to this that the left-isolated)J
72 224 :M
1.243 .124(element is a wh-phrase.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.236(36)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
1.074 .107( These observations are summarized in Figure 9.)J
209 246 :M
1.061 .106(INSERT FIGURE 11 ABOUT HERE)J
108 268 :M
.761 .076(In CG the LI construction is inherited by a number of more specific)J
72 282 :M
1.302 .13(constructions: interrogative-word clauses, relative clauses of several varieties,)J
72 296 :M
1.144 .114(topicalization-type structures, and so on. The left-isolation construction comprises)J
72 310 :M
.974 .097(the properties that are common to many if not all long-distance dependency)J
72 324 :M
.746 .075(structures in English and as such may be thought of as constituting a theory of)J
72 338 :M
1.291 .129(distant instantiation \('long distance dependency', 'extraction'\). A universal or cross-)J
72 352 :M
.982 .098(linguistic 'theory of extraction' might then consist of a yet more abstract)J
72 366 :M
1.336 .134(construction, which the Left-Isolation construction of English \(and similar)J
72 380 :M
1.405 .141(languages\) would inherit.)J
72 416 :M
1.052 .105(4. Representation of the )J
f87 sf
1.022 .102(What's X doing Y? )J
f60 sf
.335(construction)A
f142 sf
.178 .018(. )J
f179 sf
.097 .01( )J
f60 sf
1.288 .129(We are now prepared to)J
72 430 :M
.957 .096(present the WXDY construction in fuller detail and to discuss its principal)J
72 444 :M
.955 .096(properties, including the way it interacts with core constructions of the grammar.)J
108 466 :M
.926 .093(Since the WXDY construction cannot be represented as an object with fixed)J
72 480 :M
.932 .093(phrase structure, we need a more abstract representation, showing merely the)J
72 494 :M
1.322 .132(governing relations that hold among its elements: \(1\) )J
f87 sf
.32(be)A
f60 sf
.553 .055(, \(2\) )J
f87 sf
.342(doing)A
f60 sf
.724 .072(, and \(3\) )J
f87 sf
.375(what)A
f60 sf
1.175 .118(, and)J
72 508 :M
.938 .094(the semantically contentful elements \(4\) )J
f87 sf
.346(X)A
f60 sf
.443 .044( and \(5\) )J
f87 sf
.319(Y)A
f60 sf
.558 .056(. In particular, )J
f87 sf
.346(X)A
f60 sf
.592 .059( is the subject of)J
72 522 :M
f87 sf
.335(be)A
f60 sf
.327 .033(, )J
f87 sf
.358(doing)A
f60 sf
1.034 .103( is the lexical head of a complement of )J
f87 sf
.335(be)A
f60 sf
.738 .074(, and )J
f87 sf
.393(what)A
f60 sf
.689 .069( and )J
f87 sf
.524(Y)A
f60 sf
.949 .095( are the)J
72 536 :M
1.288 .129(complements of )J
f87 sf
.281(doing)A
f60 sf
.257 .026(, )J
f87 sf
.308(what)A
f60 sf
.818 .082( being its direct object and )J
f87 sf
.411(Y)A
f60 sf
.92 .092( serving as a subject-)J
72 550 :M
.785 .079(controlled secondary predicate. By marking )J
f87 sf
.206(what)A
f60 sf
.538 .054( as [loc \320] we guarantee that it)J
72 564 :M
.88 .088(cannot appear in the VP headed by )J
f87 sf
.265(doing)A
f60 sf
.765 .076( but only in the LI position. \(Recall that VP)J
72 578 :M
.751 .075(non-head daughters are [loc +] and that the left-daughter of the LI construction is)J
72 592 :M
.679 .068([loc \320].\) The relative position of )J
f87 sf
.215(be)A
f60 sf
.443 .044( and )J
f87 sf
.364(X)A
f60 sf
.893 .089( cannot be specified for the construction,)J
72 606 :M
1.321 .132(since WXDY appears in both inverted and non-inverted \(main-clause\) forms.)J
72 620 :M
.381(WXDY-)A
f87 sf
.276(what)A
f60 sf
.622 .062( can be related to )J
f87 sf
.252(doing)A
f60 sf
.868 .087( at a distance because of the potentially)J
72 634 :M
.879 .088(unbounded nature of the dependency expressed in the LI construction. In our)J
72 648 :M
1.317 .132(formulation of the WXDY construction, these relationships are expressed within the)J
72 662 :M
.604 .06(valence set of an abstract phrase whose lexical head is specified as )J
f87 sf
.165(be)A
f60 sf
(.)S
108 684 :M
1.088 .109(The WXDY construction is presented in Figure 12, where recurring reference)J
72 698 :M
.643 .064(to the )J
f87 sf
.42(Y)A
f60 sf
.923 .092( of "What's X doing Y?" is indicated with the unification index #1[ ] and the)J
72 712 :M
f87 sf
(X)S
f60 sf
-.008( is indicated as #2[ ].)A
endp
showpage
%%Page: 19 19
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 19 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 19)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
229 90 :M
1.061 .106(INSERT FIGURE 12 ABOUT HERE)J
108 118 :M
1.28 .128(The construction diagrammed in Figure 12 resembles a minimal lexical)J
72 132 :M
1.059 .106(construction in identifying a lexical head and semantic and valence features.)J
72 146 :M
1.031 .103(However, it is not a lexical construction, not bearing the marking 'lex +'. \(Recall)J
72 160 :M
.582 .058(that the lexical-head feature is a head feature, copied by )J
f168 sf
.207(head)A
f60 sf
.575 .058( from lexical heads to)J
72 174 :M
.974 .097(their phrasal projections.\) Treating our construction as a lexical entry for )J
f87 sf
.253(be)A
f60 sf
.27 .027( \320)J
72 188 :M
.827 .083(which is what we originally proposed \320 would in fact technically give us the same)J
72 202 :M
.882 .088(result, but it would lend itself to misleading and unnecessary locutions about a)J
72 216 :M
1.089 .109('sense' of )J
f87 sf
.344(be)A
f60 sf
1.54 .154( having the incongruity meaning and 'selecting' everything else that)J
72 230 :M
1.46 .146(defines the construction.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.227(37)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
.974 .097( Rather, we see the WXDY construction as an idiomatic)J
72 244 :M
.841 .084(abstract phrase which uses the lexeme )J
f87 sf
.205(be)A
f60 sf
.9 .09( and which displays the valence properties)J
72 258 :M
.773 .077(discussed above and depicted in Figure 2. The meaning of the construction is)J
72 272 :M
.959 .096(associated with the whole pattern and not with any particular lexical item within it.)J
72 286 :M
.794 .079(The fact that phrases bear valences in CG \(not only lexical items\) is a formal feature)J
72 300 :M
.962 .096(of the CG approach which facilititates uncomplicated representation of this kind of)J
72 314 :M
.981 .098(abstract phrasal construction.)J
72 366 :M
1.012 .101(4.1 Semantics of WXDY)J
f142 sf
.112 .011(. )J
f60 sf
.958 .096(In this section we trace how the representation of the)J
72 380 :M
1.283 .128(WXDY construction given in Figure 12 encodes the informal semantic description)J
72 394 :M
.847 .085(of the construction which has already been sketched. In broad outline, that)J
72 408 :M
.9 .09(description is as follows. In the )J
f87 sf
1.064 .106(What's X doing Y)J
f60 sf
1.405 .14( formula)J
f87 sf
.353 .035( X )J
f60 sf
1.063 .106(is a noun phrase,)J
f87 sf
.338 .034( Y )J
f60 sf
.75 .075(is a)J
72 422 :M
.77 .077(predicate expression and a sentence licensed by the WXDY construction expresses)J
72 436 :M
.888 .089(the idea that someone finds the proposition roughly paraphrasable as 'X is Y' as)J
72 450 :M
1.078 .108(incongruous in its context. 'Roughly paraphrasable' because the form )J
f87 sf
.197(is)A
f60 sf
.475 .048( is)J
72 464 :M
1.084 .108(replaceable, of course, by )J
f87 sf
.389(am)A
f60 sf
.159(,)A
f87 sf
.67 .067( are)J
f60 sf
.159(,)A
f87 sf
.524 .052( was )J
f60 sf
.3(or)A
f87 sf
.909 .091( were)J
f60 sf
1.004 .1(, depending on the tense of the copula)J
72 478 :M
.984 .098(and the person-and-number of the subject in the original sentence, but also because)J
72 492 :M
.691 .069(some of the predicate forms of Y do not combine with )J
f87 sf
.2(be)A
f60 sf
.805 .081( but yield to paraphrases)J
72 506 :M
2.224 .222(with )J
f87 sf
.67(have)A
f60 sf
.659 .066(. \()J
f87 sf
1.854 .185(You ... with that hat on)J
f60 sf
1.806 .181(: 'You have that hat on', )J
f87 sf
2.468 .247(You ... without shoes)J
72 520 :M
.585(on)A
f60 sf
1.74 .174(: 'You have no shoes on'\).)J
108 546 :M
.755 .075(There is of course a detailed syntactic and semantic structure to the)J
72 560 :M
1.018 .102(construction. In the current section we will not be concerned with justifying our)J
72 574 :M
1.13 .113(analysis of this structure but merely with explaining the functioning of the notation)J
72 588 :M
1.094 .109(in composing the semantics, given the assumed analysis. Subsequent sections will)J
72 602 :M
1.11 .111(provide the evidence for the analysis.)J
108 624 :M
.754 .075(On the syntactic side we take )J
f87 sf
.971 .097(doing Y)J
f60 sf
.702 .07( to be a constituent, hence a VP)J
72 638 :M
1.325 .132(complement of )J
f87 sf
.278(be)A
f60 sf
1.098 .11(, and we reject an alternative analysis which would hold that)J
72 652 :M
f87 sf
1.042 .104(doing )J
f60 sf
.843 .084(and the )J
f87 sf
.44(Y)A
f60 sf
1.262 .126(-phrase are separate complements of )J
f87 sf
.281(be)A
f60 sf
(.)S
108 674 :M
.642 .064(In Figure 12, the very large pair of curly braces encloses the valence set that)J
72 688 :M
1.103 .11(controls the whole construction. At the highest level, this valence set has two)J
72 702 :M
.95 .095(elements, separated vertically within the braces. The small, upper one, standing for)J
72 716 :M
.817 .082(the )J
f87 sf
.505(X)A
f60 sf
.867 .087( in our formula, is the subject of )J
f87 sf
.298(be)A
f60 sf
(.)S
endp
showpage
%%Page: 20 20
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 20 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 20)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
108 90 :M
1.14 .114(The remainder of the symbols within the valence set of WXDY are within the)J
72 104 :M
.983 .098(second highest-level valence element, enclosed in the large pair of square brackets.)J
72 118 :M
1.122 .112(This element encodes the stipulation that WXDY )J
f87 sf
.257(be)A
f60 sf
.886 .089( governs a VP headed by the)J
72 132 :M
1.332 .133(lexeme )J
f87 sf
.306(doing)A
f60 sf
.987 .099(. \(Within the syn value of this AVM the category is specified as verbal)J
72 146 :M
1.042 .104(and its lexical head as )J
f87 sf
.355(doing)A
f60 sf
.861 .086(\). The sem value of the )J
f87 sf
.355(doing)A
f60 sf
1.433 .143( complement of WXDY is)J
72 160 :M
.916 .092(unified with the second arg of )J
f87 sf
.263(be)A
f60 sf
.93 .093( \(via #1\). What this means is discussed further)J
72 174 :M
1.097 .11(below. The grammatical function of the )J
f87 sf
1.064 .106(doing )J
f60 sf
1.277 .128(element is specified as)J
72 188 :M
.406(comp\(lement\).)A
108 210 :M
.73 .073(The val set of the )J
f87 sf
1.023 .102(doing )J
f60 sf
1.162 .116(complement \(enclosed in a smaller set of curly braces\))J
72 224 :M
1.289 .129(contains three elements, with grammatical functions subject, object, and)J
72 238 :M
1.093 .109(complement. The first specifies a subject requirement \(for )J
f87 sf
.289(doing)A
f60 sf
1.021 .102(\) and the second)J
72 252 :M
1.013 .101(specifies that the object of )J
f87 sf
1.09 .109(doing )J
f60 sf
.512 .051(is )J
f87 sf
.31(what.)A
f60 sf
.904 .09( \(We will later discuss each of these in)J
72 266 :M
1.552 .155(more detail.\))J
108 288 :M
1.332 .133(The third element of the valence set of )J
f87 sf
.426(doing)A
f60 sf
.9 .09( is the)J
f87 sf
.474 .047( Y )J
f60 sf
1.356 .136(element of the )J
f87 sf
.55(What's)A
72 302 :M
.865 .087(X doing Y?)J
f60 sf
.929 .093( formula. It has an unspecified semantic frame, whose substance will be)J
72 316 :M
1.318 .132(furnished by whatever construct instantiates this valence element. The semantic)J
72 330 :M
1.204 .12(frame of this element has at least one argument, which is unified, via '#2', with the)J
72 344 :M
1.133 .113(subject requirement of this same \()J
f87 sf
.426(Y)A
f60 sf
1.066 .107(\) element \(appearing in the valence set just)J
72 358 :M
.096(below\).)A
108 380 :M
1.222 .122(The external sem value of the)J
f87 sf
.377 .038( Y )J
f60 sf
1.258 .126(element is unified \(via #1\) with the external)J
72 394 :M
1.067 .107(sem value of the )J
f87 sf
1.283 .128(doing )J
f60 sf
1.237 .124(element. We noted above that the latter is also unified, via)J
72 408 :M
1.109 .111(#1, with an argument in the external semantics of the construction. We will see)J
72 422 :M
.817 .082(that this is the state-of-affairs participant that is judged to be incongruous in the)J
72 436 :M
1.087 .109(external semantics of the construction. So, the)J
f87 sf
.319 .032( Y )J
f60 sf
1.293 .129(element furnishes the predicate of)J
72 450 :M
1.161 .116(the predication which is judged incongruous. On our analysis, WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.353(doing)A
72 464 :M
f60 sf
.642 .064(functions as what we might think of as a pure copula; it absorbs and passes along the)J
72 478 :M
1.121 .112(semantics of its complement \()J
f87 sf
.394(Y)A
f60 sf
1.058 .106(\) without adding any new information such as tense,)J
72 492 :M
.631 .063(aspect or modality.)J
108 514 :M
1.046 .105(We have not yet explained how the meaning of the)J
f87 sf
.341 .034( X )J
f60 sf
1.195 .12(element comes to be)J
72 528 :M
.806 .081(understood as the subject of the)J
f87 sf
.239 .024( Y )J
f60 sf
.857 .086(predicate and hence of the predication to which)J
72 542 :M
.945 .094(the WXDY construction attributes a judgment of incongruity. That story is told in)J
72 556 :M
.174(section\3124.2.)A
108 578 :M
1.143 .114(We turn now to the external sem value of Figure 12. The AVM constituting)J
72 592 :M
.977 .098(the unique element of this set contains a frame attribute whose value is a scene or)J
72 606 :M
.874 .087(state of affairs involving a judgment of incongruity. A frame introduced by a)J
72 620 :M
.668 .067(predicator may be thought of as a conceptual unit which is evoked \(or denoted\) by)J
72 634 :M
.982 .098(the predicator and which gives the overall structure to the conceptual object)J
72 648 :M
.493 .049(expressed by a clause headed by that predicator \(Fillmore 1982, 1985a\). The value of)J
72 662 :M
.757 .076(the arg attribute is a set whose members are the participants of the frame, often)J
72 676 :M
.884 .088(called slots in the AI literature and for most practical purposes equivalent to the)J
72 690 :M
.741 .074(arguments of a predicate.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 21 21
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 21 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 21)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
108 82 :M
1.162 .116(In the WXDY construction we have an overall scene \(frame\) in which a)J
72 96 :M
f98 sf
.513 .051(JUDGMENT OF INCONGRUITY)J
f60 sf
.204 .02( is attributed by a )J
f98 sf
.097(JUDGE)A
f60 sf
.221 .022( \(prag\) to some )J
f98 sf
.39 .039(STATE OF AFFAIRS)J
72 110 :M
f60 sf
.566 .057(\(1#[\312]\). The question of the identity of the judge is discussed below. The state-of-)J
72 124 :M
.852 .085(affairs participant is exemplified in 3a \(repeated below\) as something like 'There is a)J
72 138 :M
1.01 .101(scratch on the table' and in 3b as something like 'Your name is in my book'.)J
72 160 :M
(\(3\))S
108 160 :M
(a)S
144 160 :M
1.162 .116(What's this scratch doing on the table?)J
108 174 :M
(b)S
144 174 :M
1.346 .135(What's your name doing in my book?)J
108 196 :M
1.149 .115(The unification variable #1, which denotes the state-of-affairs participant,)J
72 210 :M
.719 .072(shows up again in two other places in Figure 12. As we have seen, by this means the)J
72 224 :M
.946 .095(semantics of the )J
f87 sf
.403(Y)A
f60 sf
1.057 .106( element comes to furnish the organizing frame \(predicate\) of the)J
72 238 :M
.924 .092(full scene \(state of affairs\) judged incongruous in the external semantics. For)J
72 252 :M
1.001 .1(example, in 3a the )J
f87 sf
.477(Y)A
f60 sf
1.01 .101( element is realized as the phrase )J
f87 sf
.679 .068(on the table )J
f60 sf
.965 .097(\(and the )J
f87 sf
(X)S
72 266 :M
f60 sf
1.053 .105(element, which furnishes the logical subject of this predicate, as the phrase )J
f87 sf
.384(the)A
72 280 :M
.426(scratch)A
f60 sf
.606(.\))A
108 302 :M
.927 .093(As previously mentioned the judge may, but need not, be interpreted as the)J
72 316 :M
1.257 .126(speaker of the WXDY sentence.)J
f87 sf
.142 .014( )J
f60 sf
1.097 .11(The holder of the judgment of incongruity in)J
72 330 :M
.888 .089(simple unembedded cases is the speaker, as in 30a, but when a )J
f87 sf
.989 .099(What's X doing Y?)J
72 344 :M
f60 sf
.597 .06(construct appears in a context of reported speech or thought it may be attributed to)J
72 358 :M
.728 .073(the author of that context, as in 30b.)J
108 380 :M
(\(30\))S
139 380 :M
(a.)S
166 380 :M
1.208 .121(What are you doing here?)J
166 394 :M
-.011( [judge = speaker])A
139 408 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 408 :M
.695 .069(She had the effrontery to ask what I was doing there.)J
166 422 :M
.355 .035( [judge = 'she'])J
72 444 :M
.878 .088(It was observed in connection with example 10 that the source of the incongruity)J
72 458 :M
1.004 .1(judgment need not even be a participant in the speech event or anyone explicitly)J
72 472 :M
.892 .089(mentioned in the text. In Figure 12, the judge argument is indicated as 'prag' \(for)J
72 486 :M
1.148 .115(pragmatic resolution\). This means that the WXDY construction does not tell the)J
72 500 :M
.94 .094(interpreter how to identify the source of the judgment of incongruity but, in effect,)J
72 514 :M
1.019 .102(contains an instruction that this is something one should be able to figure out for)J
72 528 :M
.349(oneself.)A
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.619(38)A
0 3 rm
108 550 :M
f60 sf
.971 .097(The )J
f87 sf
.572 .057(X )J
f60 sf
1.386 .139(element, the subject of WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.301(be)A
f60 sf
1.12 .112(, will furnish the semantics for the)J
72 564 :M
.613 .061('#2[ ]' participant of the )J
f87 sf
.298(Y)A
f60 sf
.806 .081( complement, as discussed in section 4.2 below.)J
108 592 :M
1.217 .122(We have noted that the )J
f87 sf
.385(doing)A
f60 sf
1.629 .163( element contributes nothing to the semantics)J
72 606 :M
.793 .079(of the construction, but simply serves as a way-station between the semantics of its)J
72 620 :M
1.667 .167(complement, the)J
f87 sf
.286 .029( Y )J
f60 sf
1.079 .108(element, and the semantics of the state-of-affairs participant of)J
72 634 :M
1.12 .112(the external semantics. In this connection, we have already mentioned that \(i\))J
72 648 :M
.898 .09(utterance of a WXDY sentence does not commit the speaker to the idea that)J
72 662 :M
1.401 .14(anything )J
f87 sf
.828 .083(does )J
f60 sf
.942 .094(anything \320 e.g., that the scratch in 3a is doing something and \(ii\) the)J
72 676 :M
f87 sf
.277(ing)A
f60 sf
.757 .076( ending on )J
f87 sf
.284(doing)A
f60 sf
1.09 .109( does not appear to carry progressive meaning, although there is)J
72 690 :M
1.259 .126(no reason to supose that WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.318(doing)A
f60 sf
1.315 .131( is morphologically anything other than the)J
72 706 :M
.975 .098(present participle of )J
f87 sf
.262(do)A
f60 sf
.139(.)A
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.37(39)A
0 6 rm
endp
showpage
%%Page: 22 22
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 22 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 22)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
108 96 :M
.829 .083(The )J
f87 sf
.302(what)A
f60 sf
1.006 .101( element, which appears in Figure 12 as a syntactic requirement of)J
72 110 :M
f87 sf
.299(doing)A
f60 sf
1.022 .102(, is also devoid of reference. Once we have the judgment of incongruity, the)J
72 124 :M
.941 .094(judge, and the state of affairs so judged, there is nothing left for )J
f87 sf
.995 .099(what )J
f60 sf
.608 .061(or )J
f87 sf
.302(doing)A
f60 sf
.62 .062( to)J
72 140 :M
.722 .072(pick out.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.237(40)A
0 6 rm
72 176 :M
f60 sf
.885 .089(4.2 The subject requirements of the )J
f87 sf
.305(Doing)A
f60 sf
.522 .052( and )J
f87 sf
.397(Y)A
f60 sf
1.675 .168( complements)J
f142 sf
.145 .014(. )J
f179 sf
.079 .008( )J
f60 sf
.916 .092(In the CG analysis of)J
72 190 :M
1.375 .138(English there is a coinstantiation construction which accounts for the phenomena)J
72 206 :M
1.216 .122(of both raising and control by permitting unification of the 'intrinsic' value)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.232(41)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.655 .065( of)J
72 220 :M
1.049 .105(some valence requirement of a predicator p with the corresponding value of the)J
72 236 :M
1.219 .122(subject requirement of a controlled complement of p.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.212(42)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.978 .098( This construction is given)J
72 250 :M
.932 .093(in Figure 13.)J
209 278 :M
1.061 .106(INSERT FIGURE 13 ABOUT HERE)J
108 300 :M
1.079 .108(The construction shown in Figure 13 can unify with any predicator governing)J
72 314 :M
.991 .099(a controlled complement \('gf comp', 'srs \320'\). It will have to be so unified because)J
72 330 :M
1.42 .142(otherwise the subject requirement of the complement will remain unsatisfied.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.459(43)A
0 6 rm
108 352 :M
f60 sf
1.107 .111(In every WXDY clause the coinstantiation construction \(see Figure 13\) will)J
72 366 :M
1.149 .115(figure twice. Within the outer valence set coinstantiation will unify the subject, i.e.,)J
72 380 :M
.387(the)A
f87 sf
.445 .044( X )J
f60 sf
1.416 .142(element, with the subject of the verbal complement, the )J
f87 sf
1.322 .132(doing )J
f60 sf
1.436 .144(VP. Within)J
72 394 :M
.912 .091(the )J
f87 sf
.355(doing)A
f60 sf
1.341 .134( valence set, coinstantiation will unify the subject of the complement of)J
72 408 :M
f87 sf
1.479 .148(doing )J
f60 sf
.402(\(the)A
f87 sf
.475 .048( Y )J
f60 sf
1.477 .148(element\) with the subject of )J
f87 sf
.426(doing)A
f60 sf
1.376 .138(. When thus unified with the)J
72 422 :M
1.124 .112(subject requirement of the )J
f87 sf
.426(Y)A
f60 sf
1.036 .104( complement, the semantics of the )J
f87 sf
.461(X)A
f60 sf
1.573 .157( constituent)J
72 436 :M
.832 .083(becomes the logical subject argument of the predication, Y\(X\), about whose)J
72 450 :M
.769 .077(corresponding state of affairs a judgment of incongruity is conveyed by the WXDY)J
72 464 :M
.31(sentence.)A
108 486 :M
1.136 .114(The two instances of coinstantiation \(raising variety\) in each WXDY construct)J
72 500 :M
.907 .091(do not represent a stipulation of the WXDY construction \(or of anything else\). A)J
72 514 :M
1.136 .114(valid construct simply cannot be licensed using the WXDY construction unless)J
72 528 :M
.874 .087(coinstantiation is also used \(twice\) to provide for satisfaction of the subject)J
72 542 :M
1.285 .128(requirements of the )J
f87 sf
.329(doing)A
f60 sf
.632 .063( and )J
f87 sf
.481(Y)A
f60 sf
1.081 .108( elements. Raising thus operates in the VPs or)J
72 556 :M
1.155 .115(inverted clauses headed by WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.226(be)A
f60 sf
.827 .083( exactly as it does in sentences not involving)J
72 570 :M
1.103 .11(non-core constructions. The VP, SAI and various LI constructions also operate in)J
72 584 :M
1.304 .13(WXDY sentences just as they operate in sentences not involving non-core)J
72 598 :M
1.192 .119(constructions. The formulation of the WXDY construction in Figure 12 does not)J
72 612 :M
.884 .088(stipulate the identity of the subjects of )J
f87 sf
.247(be)A
f60 sf
.242 .024(, )J
f87 sf
.264(doing)A
f60 sf
.545 .055(, and )J
f87 sf
.387(Y)A
f60 sf
.896 .09(, or the syntactic position of)J
72 626 :M
f87 sf
.318(what)A
f60 sf
1.041 .104(, since all of that is determined by other constructions.)J
72 662 :M
.615 .061(4.3 The )J
f87 sf
.435(Y)A
f60 sf
1.791 .179( complement)J
f142 sf
.095(.)A
f179 sf
.087 .009( )J
f60 sf
1.165 .117(The range of structures which can consitute the)J
f87 sf
.331 .033( Y )J
f60 sf
.383(element)A
72 676 :M
.868 .087(is the same, or nearly the same, as the range of structures sometimes called)J
72 690 :M
2.131 .213('secondary predicates' \()J
f87 sf
1.333 .133(He arrived )J
f109 sf
2.27 .227(WITHOUT THE MONEY)J
f87 sf
.912 .091(, She left him )J
f109 sf
2.531 .253(GASPING FOR)J
72 704 :M
.428(BREATH)A
f60 sf
.449(\).)A
endp
showpage
%%Page: 23 23
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 23 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 23)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
108 82 :M
.83 .083(The range of syntactic categories available for this constituent is wide. Some)J
72 96 :M
.777 .078(of the possiblities are illustrated by the following.)J
108 118 :M
(\(31\))S
139 118 :M
(a.)S
166 118 :M
1.285 .128(What is this sociologist doing in my living room?)J
166 132 :M
.67 .067( \(locative preposition\))J
139 146 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 146 :M
1.03 .103(What is that kid doing with my shoes on?)J
166 160 :M
.697 .07( \(absolutive preposition\))J
139 174 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 174 :M
1.11 .111(What are you doing without any shoes on?)J
166 188 :M
.626 .063( \(absolutive preposition [negative]\))J
139 202 :M
-.33(d.)A
166 202 :M
1.121 .112(What are you doing with all that money?)J
166 216 :M
.333 .033( \()J
f87 sf
1.635 .163(with )J
f60 sf
3.598 .36(meaning 'having'\))J
139 230 :M
.255(e.)A
166 230 :M
1.308 .131(What are you doing without the money?)J
166 244 :M
.352 .035( \()J
f87 sf
.563(without)A
f60 sf
2.417 .242( meaning 'not having'\))J
139 258 :M
(f.)S
166 258 :M
.998 .1(What is it doing raining on my birthday?)J
166 272 :M
.409 .041( \(verb: present participle\))J
139 286 :M
-.671(g.)A
166 286 :M
1.235 .124(What is she doing covered with mud?)J
166 300 :M
.35 .035( \(verb: passive participle [stative]\))J
139 314 :M
1.019(h.)A
166 314 :M
1.108 .111(What are you doing naked?)J
166 328 :M
.443 .044( \(adjective\))J
139 342 :M
.511(i.)A
166 342 :M
1.383 .138(What is she doing the winner?)J
166 356 :M
.544 .054( \(noun\))J
108 378 :M
1.165 .117(There are some fine semantic distinctions implied by these examples which)J
72 392 :M
.777 .078(are not covered by the summary labels \(in parentheses\). This is especially true of the)J
72 406 :M
f87 sf
.423(with)A
f60 sf
.81 .081( and )J
f87 sf
1.752 .175(without )J
f60 sf
1.309 .131(cases. Note for example that in a non-)J
f87 sf
1.544 .154(What's X doing Y?)J
f60 sf
2.074 .207( sentence)J
72 420 :M
1.273 .127(like 32, )J
f87 sf
1.482 .148(with all that money )J
f60 sf
1.618 .162(need not mean 'having all that money' as it must in the)J
72 434 :M
1.002 .1(incongruity interpretation of 31d; it may also be understood as an instrumental)J
72 448 :M
.964 .096(phrase 'using all that money', which reading is possible in example 31d, but not in)J
72 462 :M
1.588 .159(the incongruity \(WXDY\) interpretation.)J
108 484 :M
(\(32\))S
144 484 :M
1.008 .101(What did you do with all that money?)J
72 506 :M
.653 .065(Lakoff \(1987: 498-503\) discusses the semantic constraints on the secondary predicates)J
72 520 :M
1.118 .112(\(what he calls )J
f87 sf
1.755 .176(final phrases)J
f60 sf
1.178 .118(\) that can occur in sentences that begin in the manner of)J
72 534 :M
1.174 .117(those in \(33\), illustrating what he calls the "deictic )J
f87 sf
.307(there)A
f60 sf
.355(-construction.")A
108 556 :M
(\(33\))S
139 556 :M
(a.)S
166 556 :M
.574 .057(Here is Sidney ...)J
139 570 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 570 :M
1.019 .102(Here comes Sidney...)J
139 584 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 584 :M
.992 .099(There goes Sidney...)J
72 606 :M
.551 .055(The class of secondary predicates possible in these sentences is at least largely)J
72 620 :M
1.073 .107(overlapping, perhaps identical, to those possible as the )J
f87 sf
.401(Y)A
f60 sf
.656 .066( element in a )J
f87 sf
1.384 .138(What's X)J
72 634 :M
.987 .099(doing Y? )J
f60 sf
1.217 .122(construct. Without attempting to put too fine a point on the comparison,)J
72 648 :M
.913 .091(it is clear that the selection of comp phrases in neither construction is constrained by)J
72 662 :M
-.018(syntactic category.)A
72 698 :M
.753 .075(4.4 The )J
f87 sf
.28(doing)A
f60 sf
1.69 .169( complement)J
f142 sf
.117 .012(. )J
f60 sf
1.157 .116(Having argued that the properties of WXDY clauses can)J
72 712 :M
.735 .074(be accounted for by the semantic and valence properties of a complex structure)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 24 24
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 24 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 24)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.909 .091(headed by )J
f87 sf
.541 .054(be, )J
f60 sf
.928 .093(we have assumed that in each WXDY utterance the )J
f87 sf
.255(doing)A
f60 sf
.491 .049( and )J
f87 sf
.374(Y)A
f60 sf
.932 .093( parts)J
72 96 :M
.672 .067(of the )J
f87 sf
1.097 .11(What's X doing Y?)J
f60 sf
1.104 .11( formula constitute a single phrase which is headed by)J
72 110 :M
f87 sf
1.182 .118(doing )J
f60 sf
1.241 .124(and which realizes a single element of the topmost valence of our)J
72 124 :M
.246(construction)A
f87 sf
.134(.)A
f60 sf
.795 .08( It is now time to defend this assumption, particularly against the)J
72 138 :M
1.093 .109(alternative that the )J
f87 sf
1.024 .102(doing )J
f60 sf
.899 .09(and )J
f87 sf
.432(Y)A
f60 sf
1.238 .124( phrases each realize a separate valence requirement)J
72 152 :M
1.561 .156(of WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.262(be)A
f60 sf
.973 .097(. For convenience we dub the \(rejected\) hypothesis that )J
f87 sf
.28(doing)A
f60 sf
.539 .054( and )J
f87 sf
.41(Y)A
f60 sf
.768 .077( are)J
72 166 :M
1.011 .101(both complements of )J
f87 sf
.225(be)A
f60 sf
.476 .048( as H)J
0 2 rm
.264(0)A
0 -2 rm
.862 .086( and the \(accepted\) hypothesis that )J
f87 sf
.241(doing)A
f60 sf
.703 .07( heads a)J
72 181 :M
1.515 .151(complement of )J
f87 sf
.318(be)A
f60 sf
1.085 .108( within which )J
f87 sf
.499(Y)A
f60 sf
1.053 .105( figures as a complement of )J
f87 sf
.34(doing)A
f60 sf
.674 .067( H)J
0 2 rm
.374(1)A
0 -2 rm
(.)S
108 204 :M
.735 .074(If we were to accept H)J
0 2 rm
.267(0)A
0 -2 rm
.713 .071(, we would have to attribute to the )J
f87 sf
.243(doing)A
f60 sf
.832 .083( element a)J
72 219 :M
1.206 .121(number of unusual properties. We can avoid these stipulations with the)J
72 233 :M
1.698 .17(assumption that WXDY-)J
f87 sf
1.013 .101(doing )J
f60 sf
1.01 .101(heads a VP. In particular, under the rejected)J
72 247 :M
1.11 .111(assumption we would have to suppose that WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.255(doing)A
f60 sf
.744 .074( is stipulated to be a single)J
72 261 :M
1.134 .113(word VP \320 or else abandon the generalization that all complements are maximal.)J
72 275 :M
1.055 .105(Also we would either have to propose that the semantics of )J
f87 sf
.307(doing)A
f60 sf
.956 .096( was null and)J
72 289 :M
1.038 .104(unify the semantics of)J
f87 sf
.281 .028( Y )J
f60 sf
.841 .084(with that of the second argument of )J
f87 sf
.47 .047(be )J
f60 sf
1.006 .101(by stipulation or we)J
72 303 :M
.973 .097(would have to unify the semantics of )J
f87 sf
.99 .099(doing )J
f60 sf
.785 .079(with that of its sister )J
f87 sf
.479 .048(Y )J
f60 sf
1.668 .167(by stipulation.)J
72 317 :M
.69 .069(Either way we would lose the automatic raising effect discussed in section 4.2.1.)J
72 331 :M
.95 .095(Nothing else in the grammar tells us that two sisters can share semantics, but the)J
72 345 :M
.971 .097(absorption of the semantics of a complement by a governing auxiliary or copulative)J
72 359 :M
.817 .082(verb is a well established generalization, which applies straightforwardly under H)J
0 2 rm
.204(1)A
0 -2 rm
(.)S
72 374 :M
.816 .082(Also under H)J
0 2 rm
.216(0)A
0 -2 rm
.676 .068( we have a one-word VP with a direct object that by fortunate accident)J
72 389 :M
.886 .089(has to be left-isolated. Even if there were no empirical evidence bearing on the)J
72 403 :M
.725 .072(matter, we would for these reasons prefer H)J
0 2 rm
.21(1)A
0 -2 rm
.37 .037( to H)J
0 2 rm
.21(0)A
0 -2 rm
.219 .022(. H)J
0 2 rm
.262 .026(1 )J
0 -2 rm
.71 .071(allows us to simplify the)J
72 418 :M
1.228 .123(WXDY construction in the sense of reducing the amount of information in it \320 and)J
72 432 :M
1.186 .119(relying on other constructions or principles to supply that information.)J
108 454 :M
1.32 .132(The placement of focus-taking adverbial elements provides empirical)J
72 468 :M
.718 .072(evidence in favor of H)J
0 2 rm
.226(1)A
0 -2 rm
.653 .065(. It has been shown that, by and large, such adverbs must)J
72 483 :M
.715 .072(appear as left sister to some constituent which contains its focus \(McCawley 1987,)J
72 497 :M
.831 .083(Brugman 1986\). The sentences in 34, all have a focus-taking adverb appearing to the)J
72 511 :M
.737 .074(left of WXDY )J
f87 sf
.234(doing)A
f60 sf
.906 .091( while focussing the)J
f87 sf
.261 .026( Y )J
f60 sf
1.047 .105(element, as does example \(14\)b, repeated.)J
108 533 :M
(\(34\))S
139 533 :M
(a.)S
166 533 :M
1.361 .136(What were they even doing in the neighborhood?)J
139 547 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 547 :M
.744 .074(I wonder what the key was still doing under the mat.)J
139 561 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 561 :M
1.141 .114(What were you only doing with one shoe on?)J
108 603 :M
(\(14\))S
139 603 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 603 :M
1.06 .106(What was he still doing in the tool shed?)J
72 633 :M
.663 .066(If McCawley's generalization about focus into a right sister from a left sister is to be)J
72 647 :M
1.373 .137(maintained, the )J
f87 sf
.314(doing)A
f60 sf
.955 .096( and)J
f87 sf
.349 .035( Y )J
f60 sf
1.27 .127(phrases must be contained in a single constituent.)J
72 661 :M
1.24 .124(Therefore the )J
f87 sf
.311(doing)A
f60 sf
.946 .095( and)J
f87 sf
.346 .035( Y )J
f60 sf
1.651 .165(phrases cannot represent independent complements of)J
72 675 :M
.249(WXDY-)A
f87 sf
.154(be)A
f60 sf
.469 .047(, as posited by H)J
0 2 rm
.181(0)A
0 -2 rm
.482 .048(. According to H)J
0 2 rm
.181(1)A
0 -2 rm
.09(,)A
0 2 rm
.082 .008( )J
0 -2 rm
f87 sf
.165(doing)A
f60 sf
.501 .05( and)J
f87 sf
.183 .018( Y )J
f60 sf
.596 .06(are both daughters of a)J
72 690 :M
.858 .086(VP complement of WXDY, agreeing with the data of \(34\).)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 25 25
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 25 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 25)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
1.113 .111(4.5 The )J
f87 sf
.45(What\312)A
f60 sf
.458(element)A
f142 sf
.133(.)A
f179 sf
.121 .012( )J
f60 sf
1.23 .123(In Figure 12, the direct object of )J
f87 sf
.415(doing)A
f60 sf
.748 .075(, the )J
f87 sf
.455(what)A
f60 sf
2.032 .203( element,)J
72 96 :M
1.006 .101(cannot be realized within the VP headed by )J
f87 sf
.289(doing)A
f60 sf
.804 .08( because it is marked 'loc \320'. This)J
72 110 :M
1.02 .102(means that )J
f87 sf
.596 .06(what )J
f60 sf
.955 .095(must occur left-isolated. Since it is a wh-type element, it fits nicely)J
72 124 :M
1.018 .102(as the left-isolated element of either a main clause or embedded non-subject wh-)J
72 138 :M
.286(question.)A
108 160 :M
.829 .083(This )J
f87 sf
.864 .086(what )J
f60 sf
1.249 .125(possesses the syntactic 'wh-ness' property of ordinary interrogative)J
72 174 :M
f87 sf
.309(what)A
f60 sf
.881 .088(. We can see that it is interrogative because it allows for the peculiar)J
72 188 :M
1.629 .163(exclamations following left-isolated interrogative wh-items.)J
108 210 :M
(\(35\))S
139 210 :M
(a.)S
166 210 :M
.622 .062(I wonder what in blue blazes you wore to the opera.)J
139 224 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 224 :M
.603 .06(*I saw what in blue blazes you wore to the opera.)J
139 238 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 238 :M
.853 .085(*You wore what in blue blazes to the opera?)J
139 252 :M
-.33(d.)A
166 252 :M
.862 .086(What in blue blazes are you doing wearing that?)J
108 274 :M
1.089 .109(Since we also want WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.288(what)A
f60 sf
.868 .087( to have the semantic property of being a)J
72 288 :M
1.044 .104(question indicator, we let the WXDY construction call for the independently existing)J
72 302 :M
1.359 .136(lexical item \(lexical construction\) defining the interrogative word )J
f87 sf
.312(what.)A
f60 sf
.638 .064( All the)J
72 316 :M
1.409 .141(WXDY construction adds to the information coming from this inherited)J
72 330 :M
1.109 .111(construction is that this constituent satifies the direct object requirement of WXDY-)J
72 344 :M
f87 sf
.308(doing)A
f60 sf
.985 .098( and that semantically it is not an operator \(in the sense of binding the)J
72 358 :M
.979 .098(reference of something else\). We will indicate the last property with the notation)J
72 372 :M
.936 .094('sem [ref \277]'. We do not have a general theory of the semantics of interrogation to)J
72 386 :M
.688 .069(propose, and this notation is not intended to suggest such a theory. It records the)J
72 400 :M
1.085 .108(facts noted: that WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.802 .08(what )J
f60 sf
.821 .082(\(1\) has the syntax of a normal wh-item, \(2\) indicates a)J
72 414 :M
.814 .081(question \(in a broad sense which includes embedded questions\), and \(3\) serves no)J
72 428 :M
1.546 .155(variable-binding or other referential function.)J
108 450 :M
1.617 .162(The non-referentiality of WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.34(what)A
f60 sf
1.229 .123( explains the resistance of WXDY)J
72 466 :M
1.072 .107(clauses to )J
f87 sf
.265(else)A
f60 sf
1.077 .108(, noted in section 2.3.)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.244(44)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.952 .095( The expression )J
f87 sf
1.424 .142(what else)J
f60 sf
1.603 .16( requests)J
72 480 :M
1.217 .122(identification of an entity \()J
f87 sf
.357(what)A
f60 sf
.908 .091(\) in addition to or instead of \()J
f87 sf
.258(else)A
f60 sf
1.067 .107(\) a given entity.)J
72 494 :M
1.791 .179(But WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.325(what)A
f60 sf
1.003 .1( can't point to an entity whose identification is requested since it is)J
72 510 :M
.337(non-referential.)A
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.526(45)A
0 6 rm
72 546 :M
f60 sf
.905 .09(4.6 Negation. )J
f168 sf
.114 .011( )J
f60 sf
.739 .074(As we remarked in section 2.3, the )J
f87 sf
.336(Y)A
f60 sf
.917 .092( constituent of a WXDY construct)J
72 560 :M
.928 .093(can be negated but the )J
f87 sf
.302(doing)A
f60 sf
.582 .058( and )J
f87 sf
.562 .056(be )J
f60 sf
1.875 .187(constituents can't.)J
108 582 :M
(\(36\))S
139 582 :M
(a.)S
166 582 :M
1.098 .11(What are you doing not paying attention?)J
139 596 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 596 :M
1.154 .115(What is your homework doing not on my desk?)J
108 618 :M
(\(37\))S
139 618 :M
(a.)S
166 618 :M
1.22 .122(*What are you not doing paying attention?)J
139 632 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 632 :M
1.253 .125(*What is your homework not doing on my desk?)J
108 654 :M
(\(38\))S
139 654 :M
(a.)S
166 654 :M
1.49 .149(*What aren't you doing paying attention?)J
139 668 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 668 :M
1.471 .147(*What isn't your homework doing on my desk?)J
108 690 :M
1.136 .114(We have seen that the semantic frame of the WXDY construction specifies a)J
72 704 :M
1.169 .117(judgment of incongruity on the part of some 'judge' and that the meaning of this)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 26 26
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 26 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 26)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.863 .086(frame is contextually anchored as regards the identity of the judge. That is, )J
f87 sf
.332(What's)A
72 96 :M
.563 .056(X doing Y? )J
f60 sf
.848 .085( means approximately what is expressed in 39.)J
108 118 :M
(\(39\))S
144 118 :M
1.088 .109('Someone \320 you can figure out who \320 judges Y\(X\) to be incongruous')J
72 140 :M
.754 .075(Now what, we may ask, might the negation of such a semantic object be? Perhaps)J
72 154 :M
1.398 .14(one of the following?)J
108 176 :M
(\(40\))S
139 176 :M
(a.)S
166 176 :M
1.202 .12('No one judges Y\(X\) to be incongruous')J
139 190 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 190 :M
.979 .098('Someone \320 you can't figure out who \320 judges Y\(X\) to be)J
166 204 :M
.515(incongruous')A
139 218 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 218 :M
.975 .097('Someone \320 you can figure out who \320 doesn't judge Y\(X\) to be)J
166 232 :M
.515(incongruous')A
139 246 :M
-.33(d.)A
166 246 :M
.91 .091('Someone \320 you can figure out who \320 judges Y\(X\) not to be)J
166 260 :M
.515(incongruous')A
72 282 :M
.819 .082(Of course, in our rough gloss given in 39, )J
f87 sf
.262(judge)A
f60 sf
.753 .075( is the matrix verb, and if we were to)J
72 296 :M
.684 .068(take this as a serious indication of the form of a proposition expressed by a WXDY)J
72 310 :M
.949 .095(sentence that would point to 40c as the 'correct' negation of that proposition. But)J
72 324 :M
.809 .081(that is just wrong. Example 38a does not mean 41; example 38a doesn't mean)J
72 338 :M
.289(anything.)A
108 360 :M
(\(41\))S
144 360 :M
1.162 .116(Someone \320 you can figure out who \320 doesn't judge it incongruous that)J
144 374 :M
.844 .084(you are paying attention.)J
108 396 :M
1.199 .12(Ordinary negation \(i.e., leaving aside metalinguistic negation, which seems)J
72 410 :M
.99 .099(irrelevant here\) is a function whose domain is a set of propositions. But it seems)J
72 424 :M
.805 .081(that the kind of semantic object which is conveyed by a WXDY utterance is simply)J
72 438 :M
.883 .088(not a proposition and for this reason it doesn't make any sense to attempt to negate)J
72 452 :M
.3(it.)A
108 474 :M
1.136 .114(With regard to the non-negatability of the )J
f87 sf
1.085 .108(doing )J
f60 sf
1.13 .113(VP, we have encoded this in)J
72 488 :M
.97 .097(the WXDY construction depicted in Figure 12 by the stipulation 'neg \320' in the syn)J
72 502 :M
.992 .099(value of the )J
f87 sf
.356(doing)A
f60 sf
1.053 .105( valence element. We have not been able to think of a way to)J
72 516 :M
1.265 .126(deduce the non-negatability of WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.254(doing)A
f60 sf
.826 .083( from anything else. If such a deduction)J
72 530 :M
.945 .095(were to be discovered, the WXDY construction could be improved by removing this)J
72 544 :M
.332(stipulation.)A
72 580 :M
.887 .089(4.7 Referentiality of )J
f87 sf
.489 .049(X. )J
f284 sf
.118 .012( )J
f60 sf
.715 .071(The )J
f87 sf
.421 .042(X )J
f60 sf
.876 .088(element in a WXDY construct cannot consist of a truly)J
72 594 :M
1.013 .101(expletive element 42b, a fully opaque idiom chunk 43b, a presentational introducer)J
72 608 :M
.703 .07(44b, or a negative noun phrase 45b.)J
108 630 :M
(\(42\))S
139 630 :M
(a.)S
166 630 :M
.682 .068(How come we had a blizzard in August?)J
139 644 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 644 :M
.917 .092(*What was there doing being a blizzard in August?)J
108 666 :M
(\(43\))S
139 666 :M
(a.)S
166 666 :M
.493 .049(I wonder why my leg is being pulled.)J
139 680 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 680 :M
.671 .067(*I wonder what my leg is doing being pulled.)J
108 702 :M
(\(44\))S
139 702 :M
(a.)S
166 702 :M
1.153 .115(I'll bet that's the teacher.)J
139 716 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 716 :M
1.407 .141(*What's that doing being the teacher?)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 27 27
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 27 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 27)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
108 90 :M
(\(45\))S
139 90 :M
(a.)S
166 90 :M
1.238 .124(How come there's no milk in the fridge?)J
139 104 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 104 :M
1.543 .154(*What's no milk doing in the fridge?)J
72 134 :M
.955 .095(Our formulation of WXDY in Figure 12 accounts for these observations by)J
72 148 :M
.703 .07(providing for the )J
f87 sf
.329 .033(Y )J
f60 sf
.732 .073(element to be a predicate \(e.g., not a semantically empty,)J
72 162 :M
1.136 .114(predicate-like expression\) and making the )J
f87 sf
.4(X)A
f60 sf
.962 .096( element a referential argument of that)J
72 176 :M
.056(predicate.)A
108 198 :M
1.477 .148(The reason we have to say 'truly' expletive element and 'meaningless' idiom)J
72 212 :M
.86 .086(part is that there are unclear cases. For example, 'expletive' )J
f87 sf
.375 .037(it )J
f60 sf
.973 .097(in 46 sounds quite)J
72 226 :M
.378(natural.)A
108 248 :M
(\(46\))S
144 248 :M
1.111 .111(What was it doing snowing in August?)J
72 270 :M
1.259 .126(This observation might be taken as evidence either for Bolinger's contention \(1977:)J
72 284 :M
.941 .094(66-88\) that weather )J
f87 sf
.356 .036(it )J
f60 sf
.84 .084(is simply not expletive or as evidence for some kind of)J
72 298 :M
.865 .087(conventionalized trope according to which we can at will create )J
f98 sf
.274(AGENTIVE)A
f60 sf
1.063 .106( variants)J
72 312 :M
.484 .048(of the basic zero-adic weather predicates.)J
108 334 :M
(\(47\))S
139 334 :M
(a.)S
166 334 :M
.799 .08(It's trying to snow.)J
139 348 :M
-.636(b.)A
166 348 :M
.842 .084(I hope it will hold off snowing until we get there.)J
139 362 :M
-.326(c.)A
166 362 :M
.955 .095(I'm sure it decided to rain just to ruin our picnic.)J
108 384 :M
1.164 .116(Whereas a relatively opaque idiom such as )J
f87 sf
.899 .09(pulling x's leg )J
f60 sf
1.483 .148(resists ocurrence of)J
72 398 :M
.536 .054(one of its parts as the )J
f87 sf
.34(X)A
f60 sf
.918 .092(-subject in WXDY, an idiom more easily parsed semantically)J
72 412 :M
.892 .089(such as )J
f87 sf
.852 .085(keep tabs on )J
f60 sf
1.142 .114(is more generous. Thus, 48 seems better than 43b.)J
108 434 :M
(\(48\))S
144 434 :M
.845 .084(?What were such careful tabs doing being kept on the butler?)J
108 456 :M
.778 .078(It appears that the more readily an expletive or idiom chunk accepts a)J
72 470 :M
.857 .086(semantic construal, the more acceptable it is as the )J
f87 sf
.394(X)A
f60 sf
.861 .086( element in a WXDY)J
72 486 :M
.202(construct.)A
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.156(46)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.701 .07( This observation is accounted for under our analysis by the fact that the)J
72 500 :M
f87 sf
.302 .03(Y )J
f60 sf
.636 .064(part of WXDY is a genuine predicate and the)J
f87 sf
.21 .021( X )J
f60 sf
.794 .079(part is referential.)J
72 542 :M
.985 .099(4.8 Alternative analyses. )J
f168 sf
.114 .011( )J
f60 sf
.822 .082(So far as we know, no detailed analysis of this construction)J
72 556 :M
.966 .097(has appeared in print. As mentioned in note 5, Pullum \(1973\) calls attention to the)J
72 570 :M
1.065 .107(existence of the construction and points out several of its more interesting features.)J
72 584 :M
1.004 .1(Stimulated by an earlier version of the present paper, Ivan Sag and Susanne)J
72 598 :M
1.324 .132(Riehemann have each done an unpublished analysis in HPSG similar to the one)J
72 612 :M
1.375 .137(presented here.)J
108 640 :M
.981 .098(Two anonymous referees for Language have provided sketches of analyes in)J
72 654 :M
1.028 .103(the principles and parameters tradition. Some proponents of that tradition, to judge)J
72 668 :M
1.034 .103(from the remarks of these two referees, might suppose that providing a thorough)J
72 682 :M
.901 .09(analysis of the WXDY facts within that framework is a simple matter. We do not)J
72 696 :M
.784 .078(wish to claim that a complete p&p analysis of the WXDY facts is impossible in)J
72 710 :M
.787 .079(principle, if only because one can always add theoretical machinery \320 in any)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 28 28
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 28 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 28)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.768 .077(framework. We will, however, briefly discuss the analyses proposed by these two)J
72 96 :M
.788 .079(referees to make the point that attaining a satisfying p&p analysis of WXDY may not)J
72 110 :M
1.362 .136(be trivial.)J
108 138 :M
.881 .088(The first p&p analysis proposes to translate our valence analysis, which is not)J
72 152 :M
.915 .092(specified for lexical, phrasal or clausal level, into the subcategorizational properties)J
72 166 :M
.719 .072(of a special lexical item )J
f87 sf
.223(be)A
f60 sf
.789 .079(. No attempt is made, however, to specify how the)J
72 180 :M
1.067 .107(semantics comes about. This in itself might present an interesting challenge to the)J
72 194 :M
.8 .08(p&p analyst. Nothing is said about the unusual step of )J
f87 sf
.23(be)A
f60 sf
.958 .096( subcategorizing for )J
f87 sf
.246(doing)A
f60 sf
(,)S
72 208 :M
.924 .092(which in turn subcategorizes for the Y constitutent and, possibly, for the )J
f87 sf
.28(what)A
f60 sf
(.)S
72 222 :M
.86 .086(Whereas this kind of two-level subcategorization is possible in CG, it is not possible)J
72 236 :M
.819 .082(in HPSG, for example, because of the locality principle of HPSG which limits)J
72 250 :M
.908 .091(subcategorization to synsem objects rather than signs. \(Since constituency is)J
72 264 :M
.906 .091(represented outside of synsem, HPSG does not permit subcategorization for overt)J
72 278 :M
.702 .07(dependents of dependents.\) Our knowledge of the p&p literature is far from perfect,)J
72 292 :M
.788 .079(but we have been able to find in it no answer to the question of how p&p might)J
72 306 :M
.889 .089(come down on the issue of permitted depth of subcategorization. Finally, the)J
72 320 :M
.905 .091(proponent of this analysis acknowledges that since WXDY )J
f87 sf
.236(what)A
f60 sf
.675 .068( appears to be)J
72 334 :M
1.07 .107(neither a complement of )J
f87 sf
.265(be)A
f60 sf
.897 .09( nor an adjunct, it presents a problem. How does the)J
72 348 :M
1.605 .161(construction license )J
f87 sf
.366(what)A
f60 sf
1.197 .12( if the construction is WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.312(be)A
f60 sf
1.374 .137( and WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.312(be)A
f60 sf
1.049 .105( does not)J
72 362 :M
1.93 .193(license )J
f87 sf
.67(what?)A
108 390 :M
f60 sf
.714 .071(The second p&p analysis, proposed by a different referee, is even more)J
72 404 :M
.945 .095(problematical. Rejecting the special )J
f87 sf
.22(be)A
f60 sf
.798 .08( analysis of the first referee, the second)J
72 418 :M
1.012 .101(proposes that the WXDY construction consists of a special lexical item )J
f87 sf
.268(doing)A
f60 sf
(.)S
72 432 :M
.927 .093(Realizing that this causes a problem in explaining the necessary presence of )J
f87 sf
.231(be)A
f60 sf
.768 .077(, this)J
72 446 :M
.919 .092(referee writes, 'A form of "be" necessarily occurs as the auxiliary because main verb)J
72 460 :M
1.083 .108("doing" is only licensed by progressive "be".' Consider the following:)J
108 488 :M
(\(49\))S
139 488 :M
(a.)S
161 488 :M
.242 .024(He stopped/started/continued/etc. doing it.)J
139 502 :M
-.636(b.)A
161 502 :M
.851 .085(She imagined/rehearsed/etc. doing it.)J
139 516 :M
-.326(c.)A
161 516 :M
.534 .053(What did she propose/deny/advocate/etc. doing?)J
108 544 :M
1.032 .103(The factual claim that main verb )J
f87 sf
.3(doing)A
f60 sf
.996 .1( is only licensed by progressive )J
f87 sf
.281(be)A
f60 sf
.53 .053( is)J
72 558 :M
.583 .058(unfounded, as shown by 49 \320 as well as by 13b above. This claim is also contraverted)J
72 572 :M
1.095 .11(by our argument in connection with examples 14 that WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.251(be)A
f60 sf
.992 .099( is not progressive)J
72 586 :M
f87 sf
.303(be)A
f60 sf
1.245 .124(. Moreover, this special WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.324(doing)A
f60 sf
1.048 .105( on the one hand carries the special)J
72 600 :M
1.423 .142(incredulity semantics and licenses the peculiar WXDY-)J
f87 sf
1.036 .104(what, )J
f60 sf
1.073 .107(and on the other)J
72 614 :M
1.233 .123(behaves in all other respects as ordinary, vanilla )J
f87 sf
.342(doing)A
f60 sf
.996 .1(. That is, this WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.428(doing)A
72 628 :M
f60 sf
.841 .084(has special properties when needed and elsewhere has the properties of ordinary)J
72 642 :M
1.219 .122(main verb )J
f87 sf
.351(doing)A
f60 sf
1.172 .117(. But no theory of lexical inheritance within the p&p tradition is)J
72 656 :M
.499 .05(cited by the advocate of this p&p analysis. Perhaps one exists or could be developed,)J
72 670 :M
.775 .077(but again this is not something that simply is there to be taken for granted.)J
108 698 :M
1.113 .111(We have argued in this section, not that the p&p tradition could never)J
72 712 :M
.695 .069(produce an analysis of WXDY which captures all the facts at a comparable level of)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 29 29
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 29 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 29)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.795 .08(explicitness to that presented here, but more modestly that \(a\) this would be a non-)J
72 96 :M
.846 .085(trivial undertaking and \(b\) the two attempts at hand are not promising. The two)J
72 110 :M
1.052 .105(most obvious approches have been proposed, special )J
f87 sf
.229(be)A
f60 sf
.683 .068( and special )J
f87 sf
.244(doing)A
f60 sf
.823 .082(, and each)J
72 124 :M
.716 .072(is so far unsatisfactory. The first is hardly more than a promise. The p&p special )J
f87 sf
.431(be)A
72 138 :M
f60 sf
.737 .074(analysis proposed by the first referee says nothing about either the semantics of the)J
72 152 :M
1.281 .128(construction or the theory of subcategorization \(or other theoretical mechanism\))J
72 166 :M
1.108 .111(employed in licensing )J
f87 sf
.288(what)A
f60 sf
.945 .095(. The second is based empirically on the flamboyant)J
72 180 :M
1.339 .134(non-fact that only progressive )J
f87 sf
.3(be)A
f60 sf
1.015 .102( licenses main verb )J
f87 sf
.321(doing)A
f60 sf
.958 .096(. Additionally, it is not)J
72 194 :M
1.26 .126(clear what could be the p&p mechanism that allows WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.313(doing)A
f60 sf
.854 .085( to have just the)J
72 208 :M
1.168 .117(properties of vanilla )J
f87 sf
.301(doing)A
f60 sf
1.1 .11( it needs and also just the constructionally special)J
72 222 :M
.743 .074(properties it needs. We do not wish to argue that the p&p approach could not in)J
72 236 :M
.832 .083(principle be expanded to deal with constructions like WXDY, only that as currently)J
72 250 :M
.905 .09(constituted the p&p framework does not appear well suited to such non-core)J
72 264 :M
1.435 .143(constructions as WXDY.)J
f120 sf
0 -3 rm
.422(47)A
0 3 rm
72 306 :M
f60 sf
1.353 .135(5. Conclusion)J
f142 sf
.075(.)A
f179 sf
.069 .007( )J
f60 sf
.941 .094(We began by noting that WXDY sentences, such as those illustrated)J
72 320 :M
.75 .075(in 3, display a collection of peculiarities of form and meaning that force us to posit a)J
72 334 :M
.906 .091(special grammatical object. That is, sentences like those in 3 require the grammar of)J
72 348 :M
1.326 .133(English to contain some particular convention \(rule, template, construction, call it)J
72 362 :M
.809 .081(what you will\) which is called into play for this kind, and only this kind of sentence.)J
72 376 :M
1.136 .114(Without a special convention dedicated to WXDY phenomena, there is no way to)J
72 390 :M
.549 .055(account for the fact that we can say 49 at all, much less that in saying 49 we convey)J
72 404 :M
.809 .081(that we find the uneaten state of the pizza surprising and/or undesirable.)J
72 426 :M
(\(49\))S
108 426 :M
1.215 .121(What is the pizza doing still uneaten?)J
108 448 :M
.774 .077(Once we recognize that we need a separate construction for this and countless)J
72 462 :M
.894 .089(similar cases \(Fillmore, Kay and O'Connor 1988\), the question arises how a speaker)J
72 476 :M
1.307 .131(constructs and interprets sentences which contain, in addition to the 'idiomatic')J
72 490 :M
1.147 .115(constructions like WXDY, all the familiar grammatical structures, such as verb)J
72 504 :M
.918 .092(phrases, relative clauses, passives, and so on. When we view the data with this)J
72 518 :M
.955 .095(problem in mind, we begin to glimpse the outlines of a grammar which allows us to)J
72 532 :M
1.06 .106(extract the generalizations that most grammarians, regardless of framework, would)J
72 546 :M
.571 .057(admit are presented by the data of each language, while still being able to account for)J
72 560 :M
1.716 .172(the relatively non-core phenomena like WXDY.)J
108 582 :M
1.099 .11(In the case of the interaction of the WXDY construction with the more)J
72 596 :M
.997 .1(general grammar of English, we may observe the following:)J
108 618 :M
.991 .099(The WXDY construction itself is given in the form of an abstract phrase with)J
72 632 :M
.826 .083(a complex valence. The constituent structure of this phrase is not fixed. It is headed)J
72 646 :M
.832 .083(by the lexeme )J
f87 sf
.245(be)A
f60 sf
.896 .09(. The construction depicted in Figure 12 looks rather like the)J
72 660 :M
.645 .064(depiction of a verbal lexical entry in CG, except that \(1\) it is marked neither for lex)J
72 674 :M
.822 .082(nor for max and so is underspecified for both lexicality and maximality)J
72 688 :M
.734 .073(\(phrasehood\), \(2\) no phonology is assigned, and \(3\) several of the details of the)J
72 702 :M
.995 .1(valence set are unlike those of garden variety lexical items.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 30 30
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 30 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 30)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
108 82 :M
.817 .082(The )J
f87 sf
.429(X)A
f60 sf
.91 .091( member of the valence set is assigned the subject function. The)J
72 96 :M
1.15 .115(constituent satisfying this requirement thus occurs wherever the subject of )J
f87 sf
.518 .052(be )J
f60 sf
.441(would)A
72 110 :M
1.181 .118(ordinarily occur, depending on whether )J
f87 sf
.496 .05(be )J
f60 sf
.841 .084(heads a VP or an inverted clause. The)J
72 124 :M
.907 .091(ordinary grammar of VPs, inverted clauses and subject-predicate clauses will)J
72 138 :M
1.006 .101(determine this distribution. That is, once the WXDY construction designates the )J
f87 sf
(X)S
72 152 :M
f60 sf
1.081 .108(element 'gf subj', other constructions of English take over in deciding the rest of the)J
72 166 :M
.956 .096(relevant facts of a WXDY sentence.)J
108 188 :M
1.054 .105(As we have seen, since the other two valence members are predicative)J
72 202 :M
1.062 .106(complements, each will need to have its subject requirement satisfied in some way.)J
72 216 :M
1.292 .129(Raising \('coinstantiation'\) will automatically apply twice, unifying the subject)J
72 230 :M
1.549 .155(requirement of )J
f87 sf
.337(be)A
f60 sf
1.156 .116( with the subject requirement of its )J
f87 sf
.361(doing)A
f60 sf
1.794 .179( complement and)J
72 244 :M
1.242 .124(unifying the latter with the subject requirement of its complement, the)J
f87 sf
.347 .035( Y )J
f60 sf
.369(element.)A
72 258 :M
.936 .094(Coinstantiation \(raising and control\) operates in these cases in just the same way it)J
72 272 :M
.784 .078(does anywhere else. Again, the relevant aspects of WXDY sentences are seen to arise)J
72 286 :M
1.017 .102(from the interaction of both exotic and non-exotic aspects of this construction with)J
72 300 :M
2.438 .244(core phenomena.)J
108 322 :M
.347(WXDY-)A
f87 sf
.215(be)A
f60 sf
.834 .083( always occurs in either a main clause or an embedded question.)J
72 336 :M
1.295 .13(This disjunction need not be and is not mentioned in the WXDY construction.)J
72 350 :M
.955 .096(Specifying the valence requirements of WXDY as we have done in Figure 12 and)J
72 364 :M
.731 .073(simply allowing these to be satisfied by those core constructions that shape ordinary)J
72 378 :M
1.105 .111(VPs and clauses accounts for all the constituent structure configurations in which)J
72 392 :M
.998 .1(WXDY is realized.)J
108 414 :M
.882 .088(One might have supposed that the roster of idiosyncracies of the WXDY)J
72 428 :M
1.199 .12(construction included the constituent structure\(s\) of the clauses exemplifying)J
72 442 :M
.501 .05(WXDY. Indeed, at the earliest stage of our analysis, we supposed exactly that. But)J
72 456 :M
.932 .093(further study revealed that the constituent structures of WXDY-clauses are dictated)J
72 470 :M
.997 .1(by the ordinary core constructions which license familiar subject-predicate)J
72 484 :M
.914 .091(structures, verb phrases and inverted clauses. The valence properties of WXDY are)J
72 498 :M
.977 .098(such that co-occurrence of WXDY with these core constructions produces the)J
72 512 :M
1.423 .142(observed constituent structures.)J
108 534 :M
1.162 .116(We have seen that while the lexical entry )J
f87 sf
.353(doing)A
f60 sf
1.363 .136( which occurs in WXDY)J
72 548 :M
1.627 .163(constructs is idiosyncratic, WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.338(what)A
f60 sf
1.044 .104( is just the ordinary interrogative )J
f87 sf
.451(what)A
72 562 :M
f60 sf
.949 .095(deprived of referential function. In general, as we study a 'special' construction)J
72 576 :M
.963 .096(such as WXDY to discover all )J
f98 sf
1.651 .165(AND ONLY)J
f60 sf
1.147 .115( the information contained in this)J
72 590 :M
1.098 .11(construction, we find that we must investigate all the other constructions that are)J
72 604 :M
.997 .1(illustrated in the actual phrases and sentences which express the idiomatic)J
72 618 :M
.917 .092(construction. We must then factor out those properties of the data which are due to)J
72 632 :M
1.055 .105(constructions other than the \(relatively idiomatic\) one under direct study and assign)J
72 646 :M
1.035 .104(each of these to its appropriate construction. The investigation of the idiomatic thus)J
72 660 :M
1.002 .1(involves the analyst directly in the study of the most general constructions of the)J
72 674 :M
1.384 .138(grammar. One cannot analyze an idiomatic construction without simultaneously)J
72 688 :M
.528 .053(discovering and setting aside all the aspects of the data that are )J
f98 sf
.217(NOT)A
f60 sf
.534 .053( licensed by the)J
72 702 :M
.823 .082(construction one is studying. To know what is idiomatic about a phrase one has to)J
72 716 :M
1.004 .1(know what is non-general and to identify something as non-general one has to be)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 31 31
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 31 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 31)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.931 .093(able to identify the general. In grammar, the investigation of the idiomatic and of)J
72 96 :M
.658 .066(the general are the same; the study of the periphery is the study of the core \320 and)J
72 110 :M
1.656 .166(vice versa.)J
108 132 :M
1.313 .131(The picture that emerges from the consideration of 'special' constructions)J
72 146 :M
.87 .087(such as WXDY is of a grammar in which the particular and the general are knit)J
72 160 :M
.974 .097(together seamlessly. The architecture of valence sets and the principles of valence)J
72 174 :M
.936 .094(satisfaction together with the inheritance of more abstract constructions by less)J
72 188 :M
1.084 .108(abstract ones provide for the expression of the relevant linguistic generalizations.)J
72 204 :M
.782 .078(Constructions do not wither away)J
f131 sf
0 -6 rm
.124(48)A
0 6 rm
f60 sf
.551 .055(, but many of them can be expressed as)J
72 218 :M
1.153 .115(inheriting, and thus as providing restricted instances of, more general constructions.)J
108 240 :M
1.427 .143(Proceeding in this somewhat inductive fashion from the empirical)J
72 254 :M
.804 .08(particularities and patterns whose existence cannot be denied to the broader)J
72 268 :M
.969 .097(generalizations and principles that order these patterns, a construction-based)J
72 282 :M
.939 .094(approach appears to provide promise of accounting both for the relatively idiomatic)J
72 296 :M
.572 .057(and for the abstract and more fully productive aspects of a language. One advantage)J
72 310 :M
.788 .079(of such an approach to grammar is that it does not force the student of linguistic)J
72 324 :M
.905 .091(structure to ignore that large portion of language which consists of relatively local)J
72 338 :M
1.306 .131(phenomena. For example, within such an approach, the idiosyncratic phenomena)J
72 352 :M
1.297 .13(of WXDY and the general phenomena of raising, extraction, head-complement)J
72 366 :M
.679 .068(structures, and so on are explicitly related.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 32 32
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 32 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 32)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
endp
showpage
%%Page: 33 33
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 33 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 33)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
276 82 :M
.32(References)A
72 104 :M
1.171 .117(Ackerman, Farrell. 1998. Constructions and mixed categories: determining the)J
108 118 :M
1.254 .125(semantic interpretation of person/number marking. Proceedings of the)J
108 132 :M
.665 .067(LFG98 Conference, ed. by Miriam Butt and Tracy Holloway King. Stanford:)J
108 146 :M
.883 .088(CSLI Publications.)J
72 174 :M
.987 .099(Ackerman, Farrell. 1995. A predicate construction: inversion in Polish. Essays in)J
108 188 :M
.855 .085(semantics and pragmatics: in honor of Charles J. Fillmore, ed. by Masayoshi)J
108 202 :M
1.647 .165(Shibatani and Sandra A. Thompson. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.)J
72 230 :M
.874 .087(Ackerman, Farrell and Gert Webelhuth. 1998. A theory of predicates. Stanford:)J
108 244 :M
.883 .088(CSLI Publications.)J
72 266 :M
1.145 .115(Bolinger, Dwight. 1977. Meaning and Form. London: Longmans.)J
72 294 :M
1.328 .133(Bresnan, Joan W. \(ed.\) 1982. The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations.)J
108 308 :M
.715 .072(Cambridge, MA: M.I.T.)J
72 336 :M
1.259 .126(Bresnan, Joan W. and J.M. Kanerva. 1989. Locative inversion in Chichewa.)J
108 350 :M
.44 .044(Linguistic Inquiry. 20. 1: 1-50.)J
72 378 :M
1.047 .105(Brugman, Claudia. 1986. Sisterhood is more powerful than you thought: scopal)J
108 392 :M
.72 .072(adverb placement and illocutionary force. Chicago Linguistic Society 22. 40-)J
108 406 :M
(53.)S
72 434 :M
1.092 .109(Chomsky, Noam. 1992. A minimalist program for linguistic theory. Cambridge, MA:)J
108 448 :M
.673 .067(MIT Occasional Papers in Linguistics. 1.)J
72 476 :M
1.059 .106(Chomsky, Noam. 1994. "Bare Phrase Structure". Cambridge, MA: MIT Occasional)J
108 490 :M
.632 .063(Papers in Linguistics. 5.)J
72 518 :M
1.231 .123(Chung, Yoon-Suk. in press. The Tough construction is neither extraction nor)J
108 532 :M
.795 .079(control. Berkeley Linguistics Society 24.)J
72 560 :M
.859 .086(Chung, Yoon-Suk, and David Gammon. 1996. Easy-class adjectives in Old English: a)J
108 574 :M
.871 .087(constructional approach. Berkeley Linguistics Society 22.)J
72 602 :M
.675 .068(Chung, Yoon-Suk. 1995. On a scalar operator. Berkeley Linguistics Society 21.)J
72 630 :M
1.295 .129( Copestake, Ann. Dan Flickinger. Robert Malouf. Susanne Riehemann, and Ivan A.)J
108 644 :M
1.256 .126(Sag. 1995. Translation using minimal recursion semantics. To appear in)J
108 658 :M
1.312 .131(Proceedings of The Sixth International Conference on Theoretical and)J
108 672 :M
1.464 .146(Methodological Issues in Machine Translation. Leuven.)J
72 700 :M
.873 .087(Culicover, Peter W. and Ray Jackendoff. 1977. Semantic subordination despite)J
108 714 :M
.654 .065(syntactic coordination. Linguistic Inquiry 28: 195-217.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 34 34
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 34 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 34)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 96 :M
.827 .083(Dalrymple, Mary. 1993. The Syntax of Anaphoric Binding. CSLI Lecture Notes No.)J
108 110 :M
.848 .085(36. Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and Information.)J
72 138 :M
1.114 .111(Davis, Anthony. 1996. Lexical semantics and linking and the hierarchical lexicon.)J
108 152 :M
1.574 .157(Stanford dissertation.)J
72 180 :M
.723 .072(Filip, Hana. in press. Integrating telicity, aspect and NP semantics: the role of)J
108 194 :M
.782 .078(thematic structure. Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics, III. ed. by)J
108 208 :M
1.401 .14(Jind\377rich Toman. Ann Arbor: Michigan Slavic Publications.)J
72 236 :M
.825 .082(Filip, Hana. 1993. Aspect, situation types and nominal reference. U.C., Berkeley)J
108 250 :M
.224(dissertation.)A
72 278 :M
.951 .095(Fried, Mirjam. 1995. Grammatical subject and its role in the grammar of case)J
108 292 :M
.738 .074(languages. U.C., Berkeley dissertation.)J
72 320 :M
1.092 .109(Fillmore, Charles J.1996. The new feature structure decisions. ms.)J
108 334 :M
.149(http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/~fillmore/FSrev.html)A
72 362 :M
.99 .099(Fillmore, Charles J. 1985a. Frames and the semantics of understanding. Quaderni di)J
108 376 :M
.939 .094(Semantica 6. 222-53.)J
72 404 :M
1.021 .102(Fillmore, Charles J.1985b. Pragmatically controlled zero anaphora. Berkeley)J
108 418 :M
.411 .041(Linguistics Society 12. 95-107.)J
72 446 :M
.804 .08(Fillmore, Charles J. 1986. Varieties of conditional sentences. ESCOL III. 163-182.)J
72 474 :M
.977 .098(Fillmore, Charles J. 1982. Frame semantics. Linguistics in the morning calm, ed. by)J
108 488 :M
.982 .098(Linguistic Society of Korea, 111-38. Seoul: Hanshin.)J
72 516 :M
.877 .088(Fillmore, Charles J., Paul Kay, and Mary Catherine O'Connor. 1988. Regularity and)J
108 530 :M
.868 .087(idiomaticity in grammatical constructions: the case of let alone. Language. 64.)J
108 544 :M
(501-38.)S
72 572 :M
.963 .096(Fillmore, Charles J. and Paul Kay. To Appear. Construction Grammar. Stanford.)J
108 586 :M
(CA: CSLI.)S
72 614 :M
.688 .069(Gazdar Gerald, Geoffrey K. Pullum, and Ivan A. Sag. 1982. Auxiliaries and related)J
108 628 :M
.809 .081(phenomena in a restricted theory of grammar. Language. 58. 591-638.)J
72 656 :M
.742 .074(Gazdar. Gerald, Ewan Klein, Geoffrey Pullum and Ivan A. Sag. 1985. Generalized)J
108 670 :M
.921 .092(phrase structure grammar. Cambridge, MA: Harvard.)J
72 698 :M
.688 .069(Goldberg, Adele E. 1996. Jackendoff and construction-based grammar. Cognitive)J
108 712 :M
.491 .049(Linguistics 7: 3-20.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 35 35
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 35 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 35)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 96 :M
.764 .076(Goldberg, Adele E. 1995. Constructions: a construction grammar approach to)J
108 110 :M
.904 .09(argument structure. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.)J
72 138 :M
1.041 .104(Grimshaw, Jane. 1990. Argument Structure. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T.)J
72 166 :M
1.068 .107(Inkelas Sharon and Cemil Orhan Orgun. 1995. Level ordering and economy in the)J
108 180 :M
.652 .065(lexical phonology of Turkish. Language 71: 763-793.)J
72 208 :M
.825 .083(Jackendoff, Ray. 1993. The boundaries of the lexicon. ms.)J
72 236 :M
.822 .082(Jackendoff, Ray. 1990. Semantic Structures. Cambridge. MA: M.I.T.)J
72 264 :M
.566 .057(Jackendoff, Ray. 1997. Twistin' the night away. Language 73: 534-559.)J
72 292 :M
.493 .049(Jurafsky, Daniel. 1996. A probabilistic model of lexical and syntactic access and)J
108 306 :M
1.001 .1(disambiguation. Cognitive Science 20: 137-194.)J
72 334 :M
1.002 .1(Kaplan, Ronald M., John Maxwell, Annie Zaenan and Mary Dalrymple. 1992. A)J
108 348 :M
1.472 .147(conservative extension of the functional uncertainty notation. ms. Palo Alto,)J
108 362 :M
.183 .018(CA: Xerox Parc.)J
72 390 :M
1.203 .12(Kaplan, Ron and Annie Zaenen. 1989. Long-distance dependencies. constituent)J
108 404 :M
1.364 .136(structure. and functional uncertainty. Alternative conceptions of phrase)J
108 418 :M
.881 .088(structure, ed. by Mark Baltin and Anthony S. Kroch. Chicago: University of)J
108 432 :M
.25 .025(Chicago Press.)J
72 460 :M
1.121 .112(Kathol, Andreas. 1995. Linearization-Based German Syntax. Ohio State dissertation,)J
72 488 :M
.803 .08(Kay, Martin 1983 Functional grammar. Berkeley Linguistic Society 5. 142-58.)J
72 516 :M
.547 .055(Kay, Paul. 1990. EVEN. Linguistics and Philosophy. 13. 59-111.)J
72 544 :M
1.046 .105(Kay, Paul. 1994. Anaphoric binding in Construction Grammar. Berkeley Linguistics)J
108 558 :M
.376 .038(Society 20.83-299.)J
72 586 :M
1.002 .1(Kay, Paul. 1996a. Argument structure: causative ABC constructions. ms.)J
108 600 :M
.071(http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/~fillmore/5/lec05.html)A
72 628 :M
.627 .063(Kay, Paul. 1996b. Head principles and headed constructions. ms.)J
108 642 :M
.071(http://www.icsi.berkeley.edu/~fillmore/3/lec03.html)A
72 670 :M
.992 .099(Kay, Paul. in press. An informal sketch of a formal architecture for Construction)J
108 684 :M
.998 .1(Grammar. Proceedings of the Formal Grammar/ HPSG Conference.)J
108 698 :M
.975 .098(Saarbr\237cken, 1988.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 36 36
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 36 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 36)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 82 :M
.974 .097(Kiparsky, Paul. 1987. Morphology and grammatical relations. Stanford University,)J
108 96 :M
.66(ms.)A
72 124 :M
.894 .089(Koenig, Jean-Pierre. 1994. Lexical underspecification and the syntax/semantic)J
108 138 :M
.858 .086(interface. U.C., Berkeley dissertation.)J
72 166 :M
.971 .097(Koenig, Jean-Pierre and Daniel Jurafsky. 1994. Type underspecification and on-line)J
108 180 :M
1.04 .104(construction. West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics 13. Stanford: CSLI)J
108 194 :M
.828 .083(Publications. 270-285.)J
72 222 :M
1.277 .128(Koenig, Jean-Pierre. 1993. Linking constructions vs. linking rules: evidence from)J
108 236 :M
1.105 .111(French'. Berkeley Linguistics Society 19.)J
72 264 :M
.848 .085(Koenig, Jean-Pierre and Knud Lambrecht. to appear. French relative clauses as)J
108 278 :M
.587 .059(secondary predicates: a case study in construction theory.)J
72 306 :M
1.017 .102(Lakoff, George. 1987.Women, Fire and Dangerous Things. Chicago: University of)J
108 320 :M
.25 .025(Chicago Press.)J
72 348 :M
1.173 .117(Lambrecht, Knud. 1997. Typological variation in the sentence-focus constructions.)J
108 362 :M
.565 .056(Chicago Linguistics Society 33.)J
72 390 :M
.998 .1(Lambrecht, Knud. 1994. Information structure and sentence form. A theory of topic,)J
108 404 :M
.908 .091(focus, and the mental representations of discourse referents. Cambridge:)J
108 418 :M
.906 .091(Cambridge University Press.)J
72 446 :M
1.147 .115(Levin, Lori. 1986. Operations on lexical forms: unaccusative rules in Germanic)J
108 460 :M
.625 .062(languages. MIT dissertation. \(published by Garland: New York. 1988\).)J
72 488 :M
.854 .085(Malouf, Rob. 1996. A constructional approach to English verbal gerunds.)J
108 502 :M
.599 .06(Berkeley Linguistics Society 22: 255-266.)J
72 530 :M
.745 .074(McCawley, James. l987. The focus and scope of )J
f87 sf
.199(only)A
f60 sf
.817 .082(. University of Chicago, ms.)J
72 558 :M
.783 .078(Michaelis, Laura. 1994. A case of constructional polysemy in Latin. Studies in)J
108 572 :M
.099 .01(Language 18: 45-70.)J
72 600 :M
.832 .083(Michaelis, Laura and Knud Lambrecht. 1996. Toward a construction-based model of)J
108 614 :M
.905 .09(language function: the case of nominal extraposition. Language 72: 215-247.)J
72 642 :M
.75 .075(Nunberg, Geoffrey, Ivan A. Sag and Tomas A. Wasow. 1994. Idioms. Language.)J
108 656 :M
(70.491-538.)S
72 684 :M
.739 .074(O'Connor, M. C. 1995. The situated interpretation of possessor raising. Essays in)J
108 698 :M
.855 .085(semantics and pragmatics: in honor of Charles J. Fillmore, ed. by Masayoshi)J
108 712 :M
1.647 .165(Shibatani and Sandra A. Thompson. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 37 37
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 37 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 37)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
72 96 :M
1.147 .115(Ohara, Kyoko Hirose. 1994. An event-reporting relative construction in Japanese.)J
108 110 :M
.599 .06(Berkeley Linguistics Society 20: 260-272.)J
72 138 :M
.873 .087(Orgun, Cemil Orhan. 1996a. Suspended affixation: a new look at the phonology-)J
108 152 :M
.943 .094(morphology interface. Interfaces in Phonology. ed. by Ursala Kleinhenz.)J
108 166 :M
1.864 .186(Berlin: Akademie Verlag.)J
72 194 :M
.767 .077(Orgun, Cemil Orhan. 1996b. Sign-based morphology and phonology with special)J
108 208 :M
.921 .092(attention to Optimality theory. U.C., Berkeley dissertation.)J
72 236 :M
1.12 .112(Pinker, Steven. 1989. Learnability and cognition: the acquisition of argument)J
108 250 :M
.81 .081(structure. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T.)J
72 278 :M
.773 .077(Pollard, Carl and Ivan Sag. 1994. Head-driven phrase structure grammar.)J
108 292 :M
.794 .079(Stanford/Chicago: Center for the Study of Language and Information of)J
108 306 :M
1.093 .109(Stanford University/University of Chicago Press.)J
72 334 :M
.965 .097(Pullum, G. K. 1973. What's a sentence like this doing showing up in English. York)J
108 348 :M
.647 .065(Papers in Linguistics. England: University of York. 3: 113-115.)J
72 376 :M
1.069 .107(Radetsky, Paula Kadose and Tomoko Yamashita Smith. in press. A unified account)J
108 390 :M
1.133 .113(of the Japanese causative, )J
f87 sf
.365(moraw)A
f60 sf
1.67 .167(-benefactive, and passive constructions.)J
108 404 :M
.784 .078(Berkeley Linguistics Society 24.)J
72 432 :M
1.13 .113(Ross, John R. 1969. Auxiliaries as main verbs. Journal of Philosophical Linguistics.)J
108 446 :M
(1: 77-102.)S
72 474 :M
.934 .093(Sag, Ivan A. English relative clause constructions. Journal of Linguistics 33: 431-483.)J
72 502 :M
.871 .087(Sag, Ivan A. and Carl Pollard. 1991. An integrated theory of complement control.)J
108 516 :M
.094 .009(Language. 67. 63-113.)J
72 544 :M
1.057 .106(Shieber, Stuart 1986, An introduction to unification-based approaches to grammar.)J
108 558 :M
.572 .057(Stanford, CA: CSLI.)J
72 586 :M
1.023 .102(Van Valin, Robert \(1990\) Semantic parameters of split intransitivity. Language. 66.)J
108 600 :M
(221-260.)S
72 614 :M
1.097 .11(Van Valin, R.D. \(1993\) A synopsis of Role and Reference Grammar. Advances in)J
108 628 :M
1.227 .123(Role and Reference Grammar, ed. by R.D. Van Valin. Amsterdam: John)J
108 642 :M
2.305 .23(Benjamins. 1-164.)J
72 670 :M
.886 .089(Zwicky, Arnold. 1994. Dealing out meaning: fundamentals of syntactic)J
108 684 :M
.821 .082(constructions. Berkeley Linguistics Society 20: 611-624.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 38 38
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 38 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 38)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
143.24 72 93.12 @c
72 111 :M
f120 sf
.218(1)A
f60 sf
0 3 rm
.866 .087( In practice, of course, there is not enough time to study all the phenomena of any)J
0 -3 rm
72 132 :M
1.125 .113(single language. The point here is that the construction grammarian does not have)J
72 150 :M
.648 .065(the luxury of setting aside any specific piece of problematical data as irrelevant to)J
72 168 :M
1.64 .164(grammatical theory.)J
72 184 :M
.363(2)A
0 5 rm
1.007 .101( We use the term 'tree' here to denote a kind of mathematical object, not a)J
0 -5 rm
72 207 :M
1.074 .107(particular system of visual representation of such an object. In our representations)J
72 225 :M
.843 .084(of both constructions \(pieces of the grammar\) and constructs \(utterance-types of the)J
72 243 :M
.611 .061(language: words, phrases or sentences\), we will use box diagrams in place of the)J
72 261 :M
.914 .091(more familiar labelled bracketings or branching-arc diagrams, to represent)J
72 279 :M
1.117 .112(constituent structure. This is purely a matter of visual convenience, the three)J
72 297 :M
1.21 .121(diagramming conventions being equivalent notations for the same abstract, graph-)J
72 315 :M
.874 .087(theoretic entity, a rooted tree. The more complex the feature structures occupying)J
72 333 :M
.896 .09(the nodes of a tree, the more the box-diagram representation promotes ease of)J
72 351 :M
.149(reading.)A
72 367 :M
.234(3)A
0 5 rm
.82 .082( Technically, constructs have feature structures at their nodes. Strictly speaking,)J
0 -5 rm
72 390 :M
.832 .083(feature structures do not admit of unspecified values \(Fillmore and Kay 1995, ch. 2,)J
72 408 :M
.968 .097(Kay in press\). Consequently there are no unspecified values in the representations)J
72 426 :M
1.051 .105(of constructs. Constructions, on the other hand, do permit unspecified values. We)J
72 444 :M
.979 .098(will speak of the feature-structure-like objects, possibly containing unspecified)J
72 462 :M
1.014 .101(values, which occur in constructions \320 but not in constructs \320 as AVMs. This is)J
72 480 :M
.971 .097(innacurate, since an AVM is not a kind of mathematical object but a kind of)J
72 498 :M
1.029 .103(representation of a mathematical object. But we think this slight inaccuracy will)J
72 516 :M
.75 .075(occasion no confusion and by accepting it we avoid having to coin or appropriate a)J
72 534 :M
1.077 .108(new piece of terminology.)J
72 547 :M
.275(4)A
0 5 rm
.921 .092( Pullum \(1973\) provides the first discussion of this construction of which we are)J
0 -5 rm
72 570 :M
.813 .081(aware. That squib points out several of the unusual syntactic features of the)J
72 588 :M
1.371 .137(construction and also, by implication, its non-compositional semantics.)J
72 603 :M
f120 sf
.233(5)A
f60 sf
0 3 rm
1.069 .107( By convention AVMs are enclosed in square brackets except for the 'outer' AVM)J
0 -3 rm
72 624 :M
1.203 .12(of a constituent.)J
72 640 :M
.254(6)A
0 5 rm
.809 .081( Superficially, it might appear that the Kleene plus in Figure 3 could be omitted,)J
0 -5 rm
72 663 :M
1.194 .119(since it can be 'inherited' from HC. Technically, however, the notation with the)J
72 681 :M
1.068 .107(Kleene plus has to be seen as simpler and more general than the notation without)J
72 699 :M
1.175 .117(it: the former means 'one or more'; the latter means 'exactly one'. \(See section 3.1.\))J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 39 39
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 39 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 39)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
467.24 72 79.12 @c
72 95 :M
.33(7)A
0 5 rm
1.189 .119( We will have nothing to say here about modification constructions.)J
0 -5 rm
72 113 :M
.33(8)A
0 5 rm
1.338 .134(The most obvious 'non-headed' constructions to which these principles by)J
0 -5 rm
72 136 :M
1.162 .116(definition do not apply are coordinating constructions. The mechanisms for)J
72 154 :M
.936 .094(characterizing the external features of coordinating phrases are not treated in this)J
72 172 :M
.02(paper.)A
72 187 :M
.293(9)A
0 3 rm
.998 .1(The 'principles' in the usage here can be thought of informally as obligatory)J
0 -3 rm
72 208 :M
1.216 .122(constructions. Thus, the construction which unifies the head features of a mother)J
72 226 :M
.733 .073(and a head daughter is obligatory, i.e., the relationship characterizes all headed)J
72 244 :M
.165(phrases.)A
72 259 :M
.25(10)A
0 3 rm
.852 .085(For a full treatment of CG feature geometry, see Fillmore 1996, Fillmore and Kay)J
0 -3 rm
72 280 :M
.74 .074(To Appear, ch. 5. For present purposes, the following sketch of the feature geometry)J
72 298 :M
.858 .086(of head predicators should suffice. \(It differs in minor detail from the sources just)J
72 316 :M
.034(cited.\))A
177 352 :M
1.286 .129(INSERT "FIGURE FOR FN. 10" ABOUT HERE)J
72 385 :M
.249(11)A
0 3 rm
.849 .085( We speak of the feature structure associated with the node dominating a phrase)J
0 -3 rm
72 406 :M
1.124 .112(as the 'external structure' of that phrase.)J
72 419 :M
.325(12)A
0 5 rm
.911 .091( The value of the lexical-head feature is the name of the head lexeme. This)J
0 -5 rm
72 442 :M
1.035 .104(feature is useful for identifying governed constituents in terms of their lexical)J
72 460 :M
.711 .071(heads. For example, the verb )J
f87 sf
.188(rely)A
f60 sf
.638 .064( requires a PP headed by )J
f87 sf
.242(on)A
f60 sf
.907 .091(; a certain collocational)J
72 478 :M
1.288 .129(construction uses the verb )J
f87 sf
.294(take)A
f60 sf
1.049 .105( governing a NP headed by )J
f87 sf
.333(advantage)A
f60 sf
.868 .087(. The latter)J
72 496 :M
2.049 .205(collocation allows intervening modifiers between )J
f87 sf
.37(take)A
f60 sf
.807 .081( and )J
f87 sf
.42(advantage)A
f60 sf
.677 .068(, as in )J
f87 sf
.493(take)A
72 514 :M
4.708 .471(unfair advantage)J
f60 sf
(.)S
72 527 :M
.221(13)A
0 5 rm
.725 .072( We adopt here the practice of suppressing the left ends of path expressions when)J
0 -5 rm
72 550 :M
1.165 .117(no confusion can arise. Thus, 'cat v' stands unequivocally for)J
72 568 :M
1.27 .127('synsem|intrinsic|syn|head|cat v'.)J
72 601 :M
.189(14)A
0 3 rm
.592 .059( The set-valued semantics for CG, sketched in P. Kay \(1996a\), may be a notational)J
0 -3 rm
72 622 :M
1.335 .133(variant of the Minimal Recursion Semantics \(MRS\) for HPSG proposed in)J
72 640 :M
.675 .068(Copestake et al. 1995. The major idea of both approaches is that a semantic value is a)J
72 658 :M
1.219 .122(set of feature structures, each representing a minimal predication. Every minimal)J
72 676 :M
.724 .072(predication feature structure bears an index, or )J
f98 sf
.252(HANDEL)A
f60 sf
.554 .055(, that may occur as an)J
72 694 :M
1.399 .14(argument in other minimal predication feature structures. The resulting)J
72 712 :M
1.044 .104(embedding encodes scope relations. The set representation permits the notion of)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 40 40
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 40 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 40)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
467.24 72 79.12 @c
72 100 :M
1.502 .15('inclusion' of one semantic object within another, in particular the inclusion of the)J
72 118 :M
.887 .089(verb's semantics in that of the verb phrase and of the latter in that of the clause.)J
72 133 :M
.332(15)A
0 3 rm
.369 .037( A )J
0 -3 rm
f87 sf
0 3 rm
.246(local)A
0 -3 rm
f60 sf
0 3 rm
1.053 .105( member of a valence set is one whose realization is neither extracted nor)J
0 -3 rm
72 154 :M
1.303 .13(null. Local valence members are marked 'loc +', non-local valence members are)J
72 172 :M
1.932 .193(marked 'loc \320'.)J
72 185 :M
.302(16)A
0 5 rm
.93 .093( The completeness criterion of LFG \320 in CG terms: the requirement that all)J
0 -5 rm
72 208 :M
.923 .092(valence requirements are satisfied \320 is assured by the fact that valence elements)J
72 226 :M
1.112 .111(contain unspecified phon\(ology\), and normally also sem, values, which must be)J
72 244 :M
.898 .09(specified either by unifying with the synsem of a filler constituent or by unification)J
72 262 :M
1.105 .111(with a null instantiation construction \(such as the ones that supply existential)J
72 280 :M
1.295 .129(quantification for the patient arguments of verbs like )J
f87 sf
.288(eat)A
f60 sf
.65 .065( and )J
f87 sf
.321(drink)A
f60 sf
.979 .098( in English or the)J
72 298 :M
.933 .093(one that permits non-expression of a generically interpreted object in French\). CG)J
72 316 :M
f98 sf
.3(CONSTRUCTS)A
f60 sf
.97 .097( do not, by definition, contain unspecified values.)J
72 329 :M
.25(17)A
0 5 rm
.841 .084( As suggested in the preceding note, there are valence requirements which are)J
0 -5 rm
72 352 :M
.914 .091(not syntactically realized, such as the missing theme and goal arguments in i.)J
72 388 :M
.262(\(i\))A
108 388 :M
1.215 .121(We have already contributed.)J
72 424 :M
.921 .092(In i the theme argument is understood as existentially quantified, that is, as an)J
72 442 :M
1.322 .132(indefinite null complement. The goal argument on the other hand must be)J
72 460 :M
1.168 .117(definitely interpreted. Null complement constructions do not introduce traces; they)J
72 478 :M
.859 .086(obviate the need for a valence element to be syntactically and phonologically)J
72 496 :M
1.115 .111(realized by furnishing the value 'null' to its syn and phon attributes.)J
72 514 :M
.816 .082(See Fillmore 1985b, Fillmore and Kay 1995, ch. 7 for discussion for these and other)J
72 532 :M
1.452 .145(types of null complement constructions.)J
72 545 :M
.303(18)A
0 5 rm
1.015 .102(The indexing of frames in the setting construction show that the head frame of)J
0 -5 rm
72 568 :M
.839 .084(the original predication is a part of the setting predication. Other adjuncts might)J
72 586 :M
1.174 .117(have a 'frame elaborating' function, serving to provide details of the head frame.)J
72 604 :M
1.073 .107(Thus, in addition to the setting construction as a means of augmenting a valence)J
72 622 :M
1.566 .157(with adjuncts, there are several manner constructions, introducing manner)J
72 640 :M
.835 .083(adverbs, differing from each other according to whether they predicate some attitude)J
72 658 :M
.845 .084(on the part of an agent \()J
f87 sf
.281(voluntarily)A
f60 sf
1.087 .109(\), a time-occupying act or process \()J
f87 sf
.295(slowly)A
f60 sf
.827 .083(\), or the)J
72 676 :M
.401(like.)A
endp
showpage
%%Page: 41 41
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 41 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 41)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
467.24 72 79.12 @c
72 95 :M
.16(19)A
0 5 rm
.472 .047( See Fillmore and Kay \(1995, ch. 8\), P. Kay \(1996a\), Koenig \(1993\) for further)J
0 -5 rm
72 118 :M
1.284 .128(discussion of the linking constructions of CG. The null instantiation constructions)J
72 136 :M
.842 .084(discussed in notes 17 and 18 also represent a kind of linking construction.)J
72 149 :M
.266(20)A
0 5 rm
.819 .082( Included in the XH hierarchy, in addition to the S-P construction, are)J
0 -5 rm
72 172 :M
.847 .085(constructions for NPs of various kinds and a wide variety of Left Isolation)J
72 190 :M
.725 .072(\(extraction\) structures, among others. See P. Kay \(1996b\). We will not show here)J
72 208 :M
1.178 .118(the full network of inheritance relations for this family, nor will we show which)J
72 226 :M
.641 .064(properties of S-P are inherited and which idiosyncratic, as we did for VP. In)J
72 244 :M
.999 .1(contrasting fillers and specifiers absolutely, we have oversimplified the factored)J
72 262 :M
1.09 .109(treatment of role values presented in P. Kay \(1996b\), in which 'specifier' and 'filler')J
72 280 :M
.735 .074(occur as independent, possibly cooccuring, features.)J
72 295 :M
.279(21)A
0 3 rm
.938 .094( Structures containing 'Arbitrary PRO' subjects, such those italicized in i and ii are)J
0 -3 rm
72 316 :M
1.087 .109(also 'srs +', since the subject requirement is satisfied, although not realized.)J
72 352 :M
.262(\(i\))A
108 352 :M
1.216 .122(It is easy )J
f87 sf
2.062 .206(to please John.)J
72 370 :M
f60 sf
.345(\(ii\))A
108 370 :M
f87 sf
1.605 .161(To win the race)J
f60 sf
1.667 .167( is my dream.)J
72 406 :M
.827 .083(Srs is a level feature, that is, it occurs in the value of the level attribute. See note 11.)J
72 439 :M
.324(22)A
0 3 rm
.702 .07( In a sentence like i, the )J
0 -3 rm
f87 sf
0 3 rm
.351(swim)A
0 -3 rm
f60 sf
0 3 rm
1.121 .112( constituent is licensed by the lexical construction for)J
0 -3 rm
72 460 :M
f87 sf
.387(swim)A
f60 sf
1.186 .119( unifying with the right daugher of the S-P construction. The VP construction)J
72 478 :M
.853 .085(is not involved in licensing any part of i, whose structure is represented by in iia,)J
72 496 :M
1.257 .126(rather than iib.)J
72 532 :M
.262(\(i\))A
108 532 :M
1.33 .133(Tadpoles swim.)J
72 550 :M
.345(\(ii\))A
108 550 :M
(a)S
144 550 :M
-.161([[Tadpoles] [swim]])A
108 568 :M
(b)S
144 568 :M
-.178(*[[Tadpoles][[swim]]])A
72 583 :M
.311(23)A
0 3 rm
.915 .092( What is given in Figure 8 as the sem value would, in a less abbreviated version,)J
0 -3 rm
72 604 :M
.777 .078(be the value of a scenes attribute. There would be other semantic attributes for)J
72 622 :M
1.108 .111(entailments and presuppositions, also with set values. The scenes value is roughly)J
72 640 :M
.88 .088(analogous to the HPSG-MRS )J
f98 sf
.205(LIZST)A
f60 sf
.73 .073( value \(Copestake et al. 1995\).)J
72 653 :M
.307(24)A
0 5 rm
1.025 .102( Since Figure 5 represents a minimal lexical entry, no grammatical functions or)J
0 -5 rm
72 676 :M
.737 .074(syntactic stuctures are assigned to arguments. These assignments are achieved by)J
72 694 :M
1.944 .194(unification with linking constructions.)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 42 42
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 42 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 42)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
467.24 72 79.12 @c
72 95 :M
.361(25)A
0 5 rm
1.183 .118( Henceforth, when we have in mind that the synsem value of the external AVM)J
0 -5 rm
72 118 :M
.928 .093(of a constituent c unifies with the synsem value of an AVM a, we will often just say)J
72 136 :M
.884 .088(that c unifies with a. This shorthand will be useful for talking about left-isolated)J
72 154 :M
1.337 .134(constituents and the valence elements \(which are AVMs\) with whose synsem)J
72 172 :M
1.167 .117(values the synsem values of the external AVMs of the former unify. For example,)J
72 190 :M
1.194 .119(in a sentence like)J
72 226 :M
.262(\(i\))A
108 226 :M
.664 .066(Which game did you say you saw?)J
72 262 :M
1.354 .135(we will talk about the left-isolated constituent )J
f87 sf
1.873 .187(which game)J
f60 sf
1.196 .12( as unifying with the)J
72 280 :M
.901 .09(object requirement of )J
f87 sf
.251(saw)A
f60 sf
.745 .074(, whereas if we spoke carefully we would have to say that)J
72 298 :M
1.532 .153(the synsem value of the external AVM of the constituent )J
f87 sf
2.267 .227(which game)J
f60 sf
1.644 .164( unifies with)J
72 316 :M
1.163 .116(the synsem value of the object requirement of )J
f87 sf
.373(saw)A
f60 sf
(.)S
72 329 :M
.284(26)A
0 5 rm
1.107 .111( Evidently, a valence requirement is also an embedded valence requirement,)J
0 -5 rm
72 352 :M
.82 .082(constituting the special case for which n = 1. That is, a valence requirement is an)J
72 370 :M
1 .1(embedded valence requirement for which the depth of embedding is unity: the)J
72 387 :M
.913 .091(sequence of AVMs referred to in the definition is just .)A
72 403 :M
.271(27)A
0 3 rm
.979 .098( Valence embedding is also systematically involved in the CG treatment of)J
0 -3 rm
72 424 :M
.779 .078(anaphora \(see P. Kay 1994\). The asymmetry condition obtaining between)J
72 442 :M
1.094 .109(antecedents and anaphors, which is recognized in all grammatical frameworks,)J
72 460 :M
1.147 .115(depends crucially in CG upon the notion of valence command \(v-command\). A)J
72 478 :M
1.021 .102(feature structure )J
f211 sf
.322(a)A
f60 sf
.918 .092( v-commands a distinct feature structure )J
f211 sf
.28(b)A
f60 sf
.631 .063( iff there exists a)J
72 496 :M
1.073 .107(feature structure )J
f211 sf
.22(g)A
f60 sf
.593 .059( such that )J
f211 sf
.338(a)A
f60 sf
.659 .066( is a valence element of )J
f211 sf
.22(g)A
f60 sf
.47 .047( and )J
f211 sf
.294(b)A
f60 sf
1.04 .104( is valence embedded)J
72 514 :M
.569 .057(in )J
f211 sf
.271(g)A
f60 sf
1.178 .118(. V-command is equivalent to the original version of c-command amended by)J
72 532 :M
1.369 .137(the substitution of the relation is-a-valence-element-of for the relation is-a-)J
72 550 :M
.168(daughter-of.)A
72 565 :M
.293(28)A
0 3 rm
1.099 .11(We are indebted to Andreas Kathol for the formulation of valence embedding)J
0 -3 rm
72 586 :M
1.178 .118(presented in this section.)J
72 601 :M
.279(29)A
0 3 rm
.994 .099(In definition \(24\), the symbol U denotes unification, a binary operation on feature)J
0 -3 rm
72 622 :M
.946 .095(structures, the symbol )J
f211 sf
.383(\310)A
f60 sf
.807 .081( denotes union, a binary operation on sets. As previously)J
72 640 :M
.888 .089(mentioned, the symbol { } denotes a set of unspecified membership, i.e., a variable)J
72 657 :M
.52 .052(over sets. The expression {[)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.212(a)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.163 .016( ]} )J
f211 sf
.258(\310)A
f60 sf
.454 .045( { } thus denotes any set containing [)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.212(a)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.233 .023( ],)J
72 675 :M
.821 .082(equivalently, a variable over sets which contain the element [)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.292(a)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.537 .054( ]. In words, \(24\) says)J
72 693 :M
.479 .048(that [)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.22 .022(p )J
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.35 .035(] = VAL[)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.209(a)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.434 .043(\312] iff the result of unifying [)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.181(p)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.515 .052( ] with a feature structure whose)J
72 711 :M
.552 .055(valence set contains [)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.194(a)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.242 .024(\312] is [)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.169(p)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.263 .026( ], that is, iff [)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.194(a)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.356 .036( ] is a valence element of [)J
f211 sf
0 2 rm
.169(p)A
0 -2 rm
f60 sf
.213 .021( ].)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 43 43
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 43 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 43)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
467.24 72 79.12 @c
72 97 :M
.269(30)A
0 3 rm
.809 .081(For example, in the case of an anaphor we will need to specify the domain in)J
0 -3 rm
72 118 :M
.872 .087(which it is bound \(and/or free\) in terms of constraints on the embedding feature)J
72 136 :M
.906 .091(structures \(P. Kay 1994\). The intution is the same as that of 'off-path' constraints on)J
72 154 :M
.733 .073(functional uncertainty in LFG \(Kaplan, et al. 1992, Dalrymple 1993: 128f\).)J
72 169 :M
f120 sf
.226(31)A
f60 sf
0 3 rm
.88 .088( The 'sealed' feature, a level feature \(see note 11\), has to do with the expression of)J
0 -3 rm
72 190 :M
1.008 .101(certain island constraints. We do not discuss island constraints further here, except)J
72 208 :M
.967 .097(to draw attention to the fact that the target valence element in the LI relation cannot)J
72 226 :M
.851 .085(be in a sealed constituent, and that the LI construction itself has the value sealed +.)J
72 241 :M
.242(32)A
0 3 rm
.708 .071( As indicated by the two tokens of "#1".)J
0 -3 rm
72 257 :M
.326(33)A
0 5 rm
1.086 .109(Regarding the term 'non-subject' in the name of this question type, it should be)J
0 -5 rm
72 280 :M
1.12 .112(pointed out that the fronted wh-expression is not the subject of the sentence's main)J
72 298 :M
1.005 .1(verb. It may be a subject of an embedded verb, however, as in )J
f87 sf
1.03 .103(Who did you say left)J
72 316 :M
.401(first?)A
72 329 :M
f60 sf
.154(34)A
0 5 rm
.51 .051( Along the general lines of that proposed by Gazdar, Pullum and Sag \(1982\), based)J
0 -5 rm
72 352 :M
.986 .099(on the original insights of Ross \(1969\). Nothing in our analysis of WXDY turns on)J
72 370 :M
2.156 .216(this assumption.)J
72 383 :M
.213(35)A
0 5 rm
.725 .072( Ellipsis and Tag Question can produce the same result:)J
0 -5 rm
72 424 :M
.262(\(i\))A
108 424 :M
1.212 .121(Is he?)J
72 442 :M
.345(\(ii\))A
108 442 :M
1.469 .147(He isn't home, is he?)J
72 475 :M
.234(36)A
0 3 rm
.914 .091(Constituents with the syntactic feature [wh +] will include interrogative words)J
0 -3 rm
72 496 :M
1.383 .138(which are assigned the feature in the lexicon \()J
f87 sf
1.594 .159(why, how, who)J
f60 sf
1.44 .144(\), NPs with)J
72 514 :M
2.704 .27(interrogative determiners \()J
f87 sf
2.023 .202(which book, whose friends)J
f60 sf
1.946 .195(\), and oblique phrases with)J
72 532 :M
3.562 .356(interrogative complements \()J
f87 sf
2.336 .234(for whom, with whose friends)J
f60 sf
1.952 .195(\), etc.)J
72 547 :M
.35(37)A
0 3 rm
1.424 .142( An unpublished proposal of Susanne Riehemann's for representing the WXDY)J
0 -3 rm
72 568 :M
1.211 .121(construction in HPSG has influenced our thinking in this regard.)J
72 583 :M
.344(38)A
0 3 rm
1.085 .108( Much in the way that a definite determiner 'instructs' the interpreter that he or)J
0 -3 rm
72 604 :M
.702 .07(she should be able to identify the intended referent or that scalar triggers such as )J
f87 sf
.23(let)A
72 622 :M
.362(alone)A
f60 sf
.752 .075( and )J
f87 sf
.393(even)A
f60 sf
1.612 .161( 'instruct' the interpreter that the proposition\(s\) expressed are)J
72 640 :M
.883 .088(elements of a presupposed, contextually relevant scalar model that the addressee is)J
72 658 :M
.684 .068(in a position to identify \(Fillmore, Kay and O'Connor 1988, P. Kay 1990\).)J
72 671 :M
.283(39)A
0 5 rm
.854 .085( The careful reader may have noticed that the members of the valence set of a)J
0 -5 rm
72 694 :M
1.009 .101(minimal lexical item need not all be arguments, in the sense of )J
f98 sf
.426(SEMANTIC)A
72 712 :M
f60 sf
1.421 .142(requirements. There are indeed many idioms such as )J
f87 sf
.932 .093(pull x's leg )J
f60 sf
.773 .077(or )J
f87 sf
1.307 .131(trip the light)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 44 44
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 44 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 44)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
467.24 72 79.12 @c
72 100 :M
f87 sf
.214(fantastic)A
f60 sf
.82 .082( for which there appears to be no rational way to parse the meaning so that)J
72 118 :M
.975 .097(the required non-verbal elements of the VP can be construed as expressing semantic)J
72 136 :M
1.041 .104(arguments of the verb. Also, for verbs like )J
f87 sf
.309(expect)A
f60 sf
.442 .044( or )J
f87 sf
.308(consider)A
f60 sf
1.453 .145(, the CG representation)J
72 154 :M
1.379 .138(of the minimal \(i.e., grammatical-function-unspecified\) form of these predicators)J
72 172 :M
.903 .09(will specify a member of the valence set which plays no semantic role in the)J
72 190 :M
1.151 .115(governing predicator \(and which will receive the object grammatical function in a)J
72 208 :M
1.249 .125(transitive sentence and the subject function in a passive sentence, through)J
72 226 :M
1.667 .167(unification with one or another linking construction\).)J
72 239 :M
.397(40)A
0 5 rm
1.206 .121( We prefer, however, to think of WXDY-)J
0 -5 rm
f87 sf
0 5 rm
.397(what)A
0 -5 rm
f60 sf
0 5 rm
1.265 .126( as inheriting from ordinary )J
0 -5 rm
f87 sf
0 5 rm
.529(what)A
0 -5 rm
72 262 :M
f60 sf
.946 .095(the general semantics of 'question' \320 whatever that may be exactly \320 recalling that)J
72 280 :M
.983 .098(the semantics of a WXDY sentence must express either a main clause question or an)J
72 298 :M
.918 .092(embedded question. This requires in turn that we assume an abstract interrogative)J
72 316 :M
f87 sf
.296(what)A
f60 sf
1.291 .129( lexical construction, inherited by both ordinary variable-binding interrogative)J
72 334 :M
f87 sf
.371(what)A
f60 sf
1.381 .138( and the special non-referential interrogative )J
f87 sf
.371(what)A
f60 sf
1.196 .12( that appears in WXDY, the)J
72 352 :M
1.055 .106(construction exemplified in i and ii, and perhaps others.)J
72 388 :M
.262(\(i\))A
108 388 :M
1.423 .142(What will become of me?)J
72 406 :M
.345(\(ii\))A
108 406 :M
.902 .09(I wonder what became of June Jones?)J
72 424 :M
.386(\(iii\))A
108 424 :M
.565 .057(*I want to become of a rock star.)J
72 442 :M
.582(\(iv\))A
108 442 :M
.749 .075(*I want to become of it that I marry a movie star.)J
72 473 :M
.358(41)A
0 5 rm
1.095 .109( That is, the non-relational synsem information. See fn. 11.)J
0 -5 rm
72 491 :M
.331(42)A
0 5 rm
1.054 .105( If one of the upstairs requirements has no semantic role in the governing)J
0 -5 rm
72 514 :M
.948 .095(predicator \320 i.e. if its sem value is not unified with the value of any argument in)J
72 532 :M
1.019 .102(the external semantics of the predicator \320 this argument will have to serve as the)J
72 550 :M
1.02 .102(controller of the downstairs subject in order to have its semantics integrated into the)J
72 568 :M
.78 .078(semantics of the sentence. This is the case of raising. In the control case, the)J
72 586 :M
.925 .092(controlling element will play a semantic role with respect to both predicators)J
72 604 :M
.979 .098(\(governor and comp\) and so the correct upstairs element to serve as controller will)J
72 622 :M
.93 .093(have to be chosen in some way \(if there is more than one possibility\). We assume)J
72 640 :M
.543 .054(that this choice is effected according to semantic criteria, such as those suggested by)J
72 658 :M
.364 .036(Sag and Pollard \(1991\).)J
72 671 :M
.392(43)A
0 5 rm
1.332 .133( Coinstantiation is unlike left-isolation in that the former unifies only intrinsic)J
0 -5 rm
72 694 :M
1.434 .143(syntactic and semantic information. Relational information such as grammatical)J
72 712 :M
1.358 .136(function, semantic role and morphological case are not unified in coinstantiation)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 45 45
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 45 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 45)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
467.24 72 79.12 @c
72 100 :M
.79 .079(but are unified in left isolation. Coinstantiation can also be modeled by specifying)J
72 118 :M
1.441 .144(the unification of referential indices, rather than unification of intrinsic semantics)J
72 136 :M
.91 .091(and syntax. We do not examine that issue here.)J
72 149 :M
.333(44)A
0 5 rm
1.084 .108( Ordinarily, when querying the object of )J
0 -5 rm
f87 sf
0 5 rm
.315(do)A
0 -5 rm
f60 sf
0 5 rm
.278 .028(, )J
0 -5 rm
f87 sf
0 5 rm
.333(what)A
0 -5 rm
f60 sf
0 5 rm
1.203 .12( has an unusual semantics)J
0 -5 rm
72 172 :M
1.001 .1(anyway, asking for a VP intension rather than the expectable NP intension.)J
72 208 :M
.262(\(i\))A
108 208 :M
1.264 .126(What was he doing?)J
108 226 :M
.893 .089(\320 Cutting the lawn)J
108 244 :M
1.868 .187(??\320 The lawn)J
72 280 :M
1.014 .101(But the )J
f87 sf
.414(what)A
f60 sf
1.096 .11( of WXDY is not in this line of work, either.)J
72 293 :M
.305(45)A
0 5 rm
.943 .094( There are special conditions under which )J
0 -5 rm
f87 sf
0 5 rm
.69 .069(else )J
0 -5 rm
f60 sf
0 5 rm
.881 .088(can in fact occur in a WXDY)J
0 -5 rm
72 316 :M
1.161 .116(sentence, as illustrated in)J
72 352 :M
.262(\(i\))A
112 352 :M
.666(A:)A
139 352 :M
1.157 .116(The flags are all at half mast; someone important must have)J
139 370 :M
.026(died.)A
112 388 :M
.67(B:)A
139 388 :M
.738 .074(I doubt it. I didn't hear anything like that.)J
112 406 :M
.666(A:)A
139 406 :M
.769 .077(What else could the flags be doing at half mast?)J
72 442 :M
1.234 .123(Semantically, A's response in i is similar to)J
72 478 :M
.345(\(ii\))A
108 478 :M
.76 .076(Why else would the flags be at half mast?)J
72 514 :M
.682 .068(In ii, )J
f87 sf
.295(else)A
f60 sf
1.052 .105( modifies \(if that is the word\) )J
f87 sf
.778 .078(why. )J
f60 sf
.764 .076( That is, )J
f87 sf
.295(else)A
f60 sf
1.442 .144( here signals an alternative)J
72 532 :M
.889 .089(reason for the flags being at half mast. The token of )J
f87 sf
.243(else)A
f60 sf
.903 .09( in i has a similar semantic)J
72 550 :M
.912 .091(function: to call for an alternative justification of the flags being at half mast. In)J
72 568 :M
.897 .09(neither i nor ii does )J
f87 sf
.264(else)A
f60 sf
1.123 .112( signal an alternative to a participant in the event Y\(X\),)J
72 586 :M
1.038 .104(which is what )J
f87 sf
.801 .08(else )J
f60 sf
1.03 .103(would call for if it modified a referential )J
f87 sf
.319(what.)A
f60 sf
.9 .09( Hence, the)J
72 604 :M
1.073 .107(existence of examples like i does not undermine the argument that the inability of)J
72 622 :M
.477(WXDY-)A
f87 sf
.346(what)A
f60 sf
.834 .083( to be modified by )J
f87 sf
.25(else)A
f60 sf
1.254 .125( attests to the non-referentiality of WXDY-)J
f87 sf
.346(what)A
f60 sf
(.)S
72 635 :M
.209(46)A
0 5 rm
.725 .073( See Nunberg, Sag and Wasow \(1993\) for a recent investigation of varying degrees)J
0 -5 rm
72 658 :M
1.09 .109(of syntactic mutability and semantic compositionality of idioms.)J
72 673 :M
.233(47)A
0 3 rm
.869 .087( Neither increased empirical coverage nor greater formal precision appear to be)J
0 -3 rm
72 694 :M
.95 .095(the dominant goals of current research in this tradition \(Chomsky 1992, 1994\).)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 46 46
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 46 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 46)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
467.24 72 79.12 @c
72 95 :M
.261(48)A
0 5 rm
.936 .094( As Chomsky \(1992\) proposes: '... the notion of grammatical construction is)J
0 -5 rm
72 118 :M
.859 .086(eliminated ... Constructions such as verb phrase, relative clause, passive, etc., are ...)J
72 136 :M
.999 .1(taxonomic artifacts ... explained through the interaction of the principles of UG ...')J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 47 47
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 47 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
212 102 :M
.492(role)A
244 102 :M
.236(\312head)A
212 116 :M
.288(lex)A
244 116 :M
(+)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
21.24 286.12 90 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
77.24 209 90.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
31.24 209.12 90 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
77.24 209 121.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
10.24 286.12 111 @w
302 102 :M
.492(role)A
334 102 :M
.411(filler)A
302 116 :M
.317(loc)A
334 116 :M
(+)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
21.24 373.12 90 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
74.24 299 90.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
31.24 299.12 90 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
74.24 299 121.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
10.24 373.12 111 @w
375 108 :M
(+)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
24.24 405.12 87 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
200.24 205 87.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
37.24 205.12 87 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
200.24 205 124.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
13.24 405.12 111 @w
159 304 :M
.943 .094(Figure 1. Head Plus Complements \(HC\) Construction)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 48 48
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 48 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 48)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
209 99 :M
-.119(cat)A
234 99 :M
(v)S
213 123 :M
.492(role)A
245 123 :M
.314(head)A
213 137 :M
.288(lex)A
245 137 :M
(+)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
21.24 284.12 111 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
74.24 210 111.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
31.24 210.12 111 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
74.24 210 142.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
10.24 284.12 132 @w
300 116 :M
.492(role)A
332 116 :M
.411(filler)A
300 130 :M
.317(loc)A
332 130 :M
(+)S
300 144 :M
-.664(gf)A
332 144 :M
.492(\302subj)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
28.24 375.12 104 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
78.24 297 104.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
45.24 297.12 104 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
78.24 297 149.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 375.12 132 @w
377 129 :M
f98 sf
(+)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
38.24 405.12 87 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
199.24 206 87.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
65.24 206.12 87 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
199.24 206 152.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
27.24 405.12 125 @w
195 318 :M
f60 sf
.99 .099(Figure 2. Verb Phrase \(VP\) Construction)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 49 49
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 49 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 49)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
236 113 :M
f98 sf
.453(INHERIT)A
291 113 :M
f60 sf
-.245(\312HC)A
236 127 :M
.164(cat\312\312\312v)A
291 127 :M
(\312)S
240 144 :M
(\312)S
253 144 :M
(\312)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
14.24 268.12 132 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
31.24 237 132.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 237.12 132 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
31.24 237 149.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
3.24 268.12 146 @w
284 144 :M
-.664(gf)A
304 144 :M
.492(\302subj)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
14.24 347.12 132 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
66.24 281 132.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 281.12 132 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
66.24 281 149.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
3.24 347.12 146 @w
349 143 :M
f98 sf
(+)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
31.24 377.12 101 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
144.24 233 101.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
51.24 233.12 101 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
144.24 233 152.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
20.24 377.12 132 @w
123 332 :M
f60 sf
1.374 .137(Figure 3. Verb Phrase \(VP\) Construction \(alternative formulation\))J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 50 50
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 50 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 50)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
185 93 :M
-.119(cat)A
218 93 :M
(v)S
185 117 :M
.788(sem)A
218 124 :M
f222 sf
.75 .075( )J
218 124 :M
(\356)S
218 116 :M
(\355)S
218 108 :M
(\354)S
412 124 :M
.75 .075( )J
412 124 :M
(\376)S
412 116 :M
(\375)S
412 108 :M
(\374)S
222 123 :M
f211 sf
( )S
222 123 :M
(\353)S
222 111 :M
(\351)S
298 123 :M
( )S
298 123 :M
(\373)S
298 111 :M
(\371)S
227 106 :M
f60 sf
.174(I\312)A
0 3 rm
.385(frame)A
0 -3 rm
277 109 :M
-.993([\312])A
227 123 :M
-.099(\312\312args)A
277 123 :M
({\312})S
303 117 :M
(,)S
316 123 :M
f211 sf
( )S
316 123 :M
(\353)S
316 111 :M
(\351)S
397 123 :M
( )S
397 123 :M
(\373)S
397 111 :M
(\371)S
321 106 :M
f60 sf
.162(II\312)A
0 3 rm
.34(frame)A
0 -3 rm
375 109 :M
-.993([\312])A
321 123 :M
-.099(\312\312args)A
375 123 :M
({I})S
185 138 :M
.866(val)A
218 138 :M
-.069({[sem\312{[)A
f98 sf
0 -3 rm
-.042(II\312)A
0 3 rm
f60 sf
-.051(\312]}])A
f295 sf
(})S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
36.24 428.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
246.24 182 81.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
62.24 182.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
246.24 182 143.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
26.24 428.12 117 @w
223 323 :M
f60 sf
1.217 .122(Figure 4. Setting Construction)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 51 51
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 51 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 51)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
216 99 :M
-.119(cat)A
249 99 :M
(v)S
216 123 :M
.788(sem)A
249 130 :M
f222 sf
.75 .075( )J
249 130 :M
(\356)S
249 122 :M
(\355)S
249 114 :M
(\354)S
382 130 :M
.75 .075( )J
382 130 :M
(\376)S
382 122 :M
(\375)S
382 114 :M
(\374)S
253 129 :M
f211 sf
( )S
253 129 :M
(\353)S
253 117 :M
(\351)S
367 129 :M
( )S
367 129 :M
(\373)S
367 117 :M
(\371)S
258 112 :M
f60 sf
.174(I\312)A
0 3 rm
.385(frame)A
0 -3 rm
308 115 :M
.72(ARRIVE)A
258 129 :M
-.099(\312\312args)A
308 129 :M
.34({A})A
216 144 :M
.866(val)A
249 144 :M
({[sem\312{A}])S
f295 sf
(})S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
36.24 398.12 87 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
185.24 213 87.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
62.24 213.12 87 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
185.24 213 149.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
26.24 398.12 123 @w
197 329 :M
f60 sf
1.256 .126(Figure 5. Minimal Entry for verb )J
f87 sf
.381(arrive)A
endp
showpage
%%Page: 52 52
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 52 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 52)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
185 82 :M
1.135 .113(Unification of Figures 4 and 5 \(with )J
f87 sf
.298(before)A
f60 sf
.444(\):)A
149 113 :M
-.119(cat)A
182 113 :M
(v)S
149 137 :M
.788(sem)A
182 144 :M
f222 sf
.75 .075( )J
182 144 :M
(\356)S
182 136 :M
(\355)S
182 128 :M
(\354)S
449 144 :M
.75 .075( )J
449 144 :M
(\376)S
449 136 :M
(\375)S
449 128 :M
(\374)S
186 143 :M
f211 sf
( )S
186 143 :M
(\353)S
186 131 :M
(\351)S
300 143 :M
( )S
300 143 :M
(\373)S
300 131 :M
(\371)S
191 126 :M
f60 sf
.174(I\312)A
0 3 rm
.385(frame)A
0 -3 rm
241 129 :M
.72(ARRIVE)A
191 143 :M
-.099(\312\312args)A
241 143 :M
.34({A})A
305 137 :M
(,)S
318 143 :M
f211 sf
( )S
318 143 :M
(\353)S
318 131 :M
(\351)S
434 143 :M
( )S
434 143 :M
(\373)S
434 131 :M
(\371)S
323 126 :M
f60 sf
.162(II\312)A
0 3 rm
.34(frame)A
0 -3 rm
377 129 :M
.179(BEFORE)A
323 143 :M
-.099(\312\312args)A
377 143 :M
-.072({I,\312E})A
149 182 :M
.866(val)A
182 201 :M
f306 sf
.5 .05( )J
182 201 :M
(\356)S
182 196 :M
(\357)S
182 183 :M
(\355)S
182 170 :M
(\357)S
182 166 :M
(\354)S
425 201 :M
.5 .05( )J
425 201 :M
(\376)S
425 196 :M
(\357)S
425 183 :M
(\375)S
425 170 :M
(\357)S
425 166 :M
(\374)S
191 182 :M
f60 sf
.065([sem\312{A}],\312)A
f306 sf
0 19 rm
.057 .006( )J
0 -19 rm
247 201 :M
(\353)S
247 192 :M
(\352)S
247 175 :M
(\352)S
247 166 :M
(\351)S
418 201 :M
.5 .05( )J
418 201 :M
(\373)S
418 192 :M
(\372)S
418 175 :M
(\372)S
418 166 :M
(\371)S
254 158 :M
f60 sf
-.119(cat)A
330 158 :M
(p)S
254 172 :M
.202(lexical-head)A
330 172 :M
f168 sf
-.267(before)A
254 196 :M
f60 sf
.866(val)A
330 203 :M
f222 sf
.75 .075( )J
330 203 :M
(\356)S
330 195 :M
(\355)S
330 187 :M
(\354)S
404 203 :M
.75 .075( )J
404 203 :M
(\376)S
404 195 :M
(\375)S
404 187 :M
(\374)S
334 202 :M
f211 sf
( )S
334 202 :M
(\353)S
334 190 :M
(\351)S
399 202 :M
( )S
399 202 :M
(\373)S
399 190 :M
(\371)S
339 187 :M
f60 sf
-.664(gf)A
372 187 :M
.503(obj)A
339 201 :M
.788(sem)A
372 201 :M
(E)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
59.24 465.12 101 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
319.24 146 101.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
107.24 146.12 101 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
319.24 146 208.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
48.24 465.12 160 @w
215 388 :M
1.191 .119(Figure 6. 'A ARRIVE BEFORE E')J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 53 53
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 53 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 53)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
214 93 :M
.197(cat\312\312v)A
214 107 :M
.045(srs)A
231 107 :M
.728(\312+)A
218 124 :M
.492(role)A
250 124 :M
.411(filler)A
218 138 :M
-.664(gf)A
250 138 :M
.413(subj)A
218 152 :M
.317(loc)A
250 152 :M
(+)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
28.24 289.12 112 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
74.24 215 112.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
45.24 215.12 112 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
74.24 215 157.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 289.12 140 @w
305 124 :M
.492(role)A
337 124 :M
.314(head)A
305 138 :M
(\312)S
337 138 :M
(\312)S
305 152 :M
.045(srs)A
337 152 :M
1(\320\312)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
28.24 376.12 112 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
74.24 302 112.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
45.24 302.12 112 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
74.24 302 157.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 376.12 140 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
45.24 400.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
189.24 211 81.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
79.24 211.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
189.24 211 160.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
34.24 400.12 126 @w
181 340 :M
.963 .096(Figure 7. Subject-Predicate \(S-P\) Construction)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 54 54
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 54 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 54)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
107 99 :M
.759(phon)A
183 99 :M
f120 sf
.369(GIVE)A
107 113 :M
f60 sf
-.119(cat)A
183 113 :M
(v)S
107 127 :M
.288(lex)A
183 127 :M
(+)S
107 141 :M
.202(lexical-head)A
183 141 :M
f168 sf
.222(give)A
107 180 :M
f60 sf
.788(sem)A
183 199 :M
f306 sf
.5 .05( )J
183 199 :M
(\356)S
183 194 :M
(\357)S
183 181 :M
(\355)S
183 168 :M
(\357)S
183 164 :M
(\354)S
485 199 :M
.5 .05( )J
485 199 :M
(\376)S
485 194 :M
(\357)S
485 181 :M
(\375)S
485 168 :M
(\357)S
485 164 :M
(\374)S
192 171 :M
f211 sf
( )S
192 171 :M
(\353)S
192 159 :M
(\351)S
289 171 :M
( )S
289 171 :M
(\373)S
289 159 :M
(\371)S
197 154 :M
f60 sf
.174(I\312)A
0 3 rm
.385(frame)A
0 -3 rm
247 157 :M
-.249([act\312+])A
197 171 :M
-.099(\312\312args)A
247 171 :M
.34({A})A
294 165 :M
(,)S
325 171 :M
f211 sf
( )S
325 171 :M
(\353)S
325 159 :M
(\351)S
446 171 :M
( )S
446 171 :M
(\373)S
446 159 :M
(\371)S
330 156 :M
f60 sf
.264(II\312frame)A
384 156 :M
.13(RECEIVE)A
330 170 :M
-.071(\312\312\312\312args)A
384 170 :M
.029({B,\312C\312})A
451 165 :M
(,)S
192 201 :M
f211 sf
( )S
192 201 :M
(\353)S
192 189 :M
(\351)S
307 201 :M
( )S
307 201 :M
(\373)S
307 189 :M
(\371)S
197 186 :M
f60 sf
.225(III\312frame)A
255 186 :M
.299(CAUSE)A
197 200 :M
-.062(\312\312\312\312\312args)A
255 200 :M
-.019({I,\312II})A
312 195 :M
(,)S
325 201 :M
f211 sf
( )S
325 201 :M
(\353)S
325 189 :M
(\351)S
450 201 :M
( )S
450 201 :M
(\373)S
450 189 :M
(\371)S
330 186 :M
f60 sf
.461(IV\312frame)A
390 186 :M
.409(INTEND)A
330 200 :M
-.055(\312\312\312\312\312\312args)A
390 200 :M
.069({A,\312III\312})A
107 231 :M
.866(val)A
183 243 :M
f211 sf
( )S
183 243 :M
(\356)S
183 239 :M
(\357)S
183 231 :M
(\355)S
183 221 :M
(\357)S
183 219 :M
(\354)S
440 243 :M
( )S
440 243 :M
(\376)S
440 239 :M
(\357)S
440 231 :M
(\375)S
440 221 :M
(\357)S
440 219 :M
(\374)S
189 243 :M
( )S
189 243 :M
(\353)S
189 231 :M
(\352)S
189 219 :M
(\351)S
253 243 :M
( )S
253 243 :M
(\373)S
253 231 :M
(\372)S
253 219 :M
(\371)S
194 215 :M
f317 sf
(q)S
227 215 :M
f60 sf
-.291(agt)A
194 229 :M
.379(DA)A
227 229 :M
(+)S
194 243 :M
.788(sem)A
227 243 :M
(A)S
258 231 :M
(,)S
271 237 :M
f211 sf
( )S
271 237 :M
(\353)S
271 225 :M
(\351)S
335 237 :M
( )S
335 237 :M
(\373)S
335 225 :M
(\371)S
276 222 :M
f317 sf
(q)S
309 222 :M
f60 sf
.096(rec)A
276 236 :M
.788(sem)A
309 236 :M
(B)S
340 231 :M
(,)S
353 237 :M
f211 sf
( )S
353 237 :M
(\353)S
353 225 :M
(\351)S
425 237 :M
( )S
425 237 :M
(\373)S
425 225 :M
(\371)S
358 222 :M
f317 sf
(q)S
391 222 :M
f60 sf
1.257(thm)A
358 236 :M
.788(sem)A
391 236 :M
(C)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
86.24 506.12 87 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
402.24 104 87.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
161.24 104.12 87 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
402.24 104 248.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
75.24 506.12 173 @w
161 428 :M
.9 .09(Figure 8. )J
f87 sf
.309(Give)A
f60 sf
1.448 .145( Construction \(Minimal Lexical Entry\))J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 55 55
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 55 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 55)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
101 93 :M
.19(sealed\312+)A
105 129 :M
.492(role)A
157 129 :M
.411(filler)A
105 143 :M
.367(synsem)A
157 143 :M
.047(#1[loc\312\320])A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
21.24 215.12 117 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
113.24 102 117.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
31.24 102.12 117 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
113.24 102 148.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
10.24 215.12 138 @w
231 110 :M
.492(role)A
275 110 :M
.314(head)A
231 124 :M
.121(sealed)A
275 124 :M
(\320)S
231 138 :M
-.119(cat)A
275 138 :M
(v)S
231 156 :M
.866(val)A
275 160 :M
f328 sf
({)S
439 160 :M
(})S
282 156 :M
f60 sf
.158(VAL)A
0 -3 rm
.087(*)A
0 3 rm
0 6 rm
.096([sealed\312\320)A
0 -6 rm
f98 sf
0 6 rm
.062(])A
0 -6 rm
f60 sf
.107([synsem\312#1[\312]\312)A
446 156 :M
-.17(\312)A
f211 sf
-.523(\310)A
f60 sf
-.17(\312)A
f339 sf
0 2 rm
({)S
0 -2 rm
472 158 :M
(})S
466 156 :M
f60 sf
(\312\312)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
40.24 489.12 98 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
261.24 228 98.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
70.24 228.12 98 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
261.24 228 168.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
30.24 489.12 138 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
50.24 513.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
415.24 98 81.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
90.24 98.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
415.24 98 171.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
40.24 513.12 131 @w
195 351 :M
.851 .085(Figure 9. Left Isolation \(LI\) Construction)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 56 56
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 56 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 56)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
209 93 :M
.611(inherit)A
258 93 :M
-.489(HC)A
209 107 :M
.045(srs)A
258 107 :M
(+)S
213 124 :M
-.119(cat)A
251 124 :M
(v)S
213 138 :M
.288(aux)A
251 138 :M
(+)S
213 152 :M
.817(vinfl)A
251 152 :M
.768(fin)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
28.24 279.12 112 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
69.24 210 112.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
45.24 210.12 112 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
69.24 210 157.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 279.12 140 @w
295 138 :M
.096(gf\312subj)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
14.24 343.12 126 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
51.24 292 126.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 292.12 126 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
51.24 292 143.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
3.24 343.12 140 @w
359 139 :M
f350 sf
(\312)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
15.24 375.12 125 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
19.24 356 125.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
19.24 356.12 125 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
19.24 356 144.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
4.24 375.12 140 @w
377 137 :M
f60 sf
(*)S
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
45.24 405.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
199.24 206 81.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
79.24 206.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
199.24 206 160.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
34.24 405.12 126 @w
179 340 :M
1.084 .108(Figure 10. Inverted Clause \(SAI\) Construction)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 57 57
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 57 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 57)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
232 93 :M
f98 sf
.238(INHERIT)A
f60 sf
.228(\312\312LI)A
236 110 :M
.58(wh\312+)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
12.24 267.12 98 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
34.24 233 98.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 233.12 98 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
34.24 233 115.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
5.24 267.12 110 @w
283 110 :M
f98 sf
.359(INHERIT)A
f60 sf
.382(\312\312SAI)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
12.24 357.12 98 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
77.24 280 98.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
17.24 280.12 98 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
77.24 280 115.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
5.24 357.12 110 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
24.24 381.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
152.24 229 81.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
37.24 229.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
152.24 229 118.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
13.24 381.12 105 @w
202 298 :M
1.841 .184(Figure 11. Non-Subject Wh-Question)J
1 lw
1 69.5 302 @w
1 69.5 302 @w
440 70 302.5 @c
1 510.5 302 @w
1 510.5 302 @w
14 69.5 303 @w
14 510.5 303 @w
121 359 :M
.029 .003( )J
0 -22 rm
.099(syn)A
0 22 rm
160 343 :M
f211 sf
( )S
160 343 :M
(\353)S
160 331 :M
(\351)S
263 343 :M
( )S
263 343 :M
(\373)S
263 331 :M
(\371)S
165 328 :M
f60 sf
-.119(cat)A
241 328 :M
(v)S
165 342 :M
.202(lexical-head)A
241 342 :M
f168 sf
-1.33(be)A
127 357 :M
f60 sf
(\312)S
160 357 :M
(\312)S
127 381 :M
.788(sem)A
160 388 :M
f222 sf
.75 .075( )J
160 388 :M
(\356)S
160 380 :M
(\355)S
160 372 :M
(\354)S
351 388 :M
.75 .075( )J
351 388 :M
(\376)S
351 380 :M
(\375)S
351 372 :M
(\374)S
164 387 :M
f211 sf
( )S
164 387 :M
(\353)S
164 375 :M
(\351)S
346 387 :M
( )S
346 387 :M
(\373)S
346 375 :M
(\371)S
169 372 :M
f60 sf
.483(frame)A
212 372 :M
.352(incongruity-judgment)A
169 386 :M
-.165(args)A
212 386 :M
-.155({prag,\312#1[\312]})A
365 359 :M
( )S
74 69.5 317 @w
74 510.5 317 @w
14 69.5 391 @w
14 510.5 391 @w
94 533 :M
.136 .014( val\312\312\312\312)J
157 643 :M
f361 sf
( )S
157 643 :M
(\356)S
157 623 :M
(\357)S
157 601 :M
(\357)S
157 579 :M
(\357)S
157 557 :M
(\357)S
157 536 :M
(\355)S
157 514 :M
(\357)S
157 492 :M
(\357)S
157 470 :M
(\357)S
157 448 :M
(\357)S
157 429 :M
(\354)S
454 643 :M
( )S
454 643 :M
(\376)S
454 623 :M
(\357)S
454 601 :M
(\357)S
454 579 :M
(\357)S
454 557 :M
(\357)S
454 536 :M
(\375)S
454 514 :M
(\357)S
454 492 :M
(\357)S
454 470 :M
(\357)S
454 448 :M
(\357)S
454 429 :M
(\374)S
169 417 :M
f60 sf
-.158([rel\312[gf\312subj]],)A
169 641 :M
f361 sf
( )S
169 641 :M
(\353)S
169 620 :M
(\352)S
169 598 :M
(\352)S
169 576 :M
(\352)S
169 554 :M
(\352)S
169 532 :M
(\352)S
169 510 :M
(\352)S
169 488 :M
(\352)S
169 466 :M
(\352)S
169 445 :M
(\351)S
435 641 :M
( )S
435 641 :M
(\373)S
435 620 :M
(\372)S
435 598 :M
(\372)S
435 576 :M
(\372)S
435 554 :M
(\372)S
435 532 :M
(\372)S
435 510 :M
(\372)S
435 488 :M
(\372)S
435 466 :M
(\372)S
435 445 :M
(\371)S
178 448 :M
f60 sf
.131(syn)A
211 460 :M
f211 sf
( )S
211 460 :M
(\353)S
211 448 :M
(\352)S
211 436 :M
(\351)S
340 460 :M
( )S
340 460 :M
(\373)S
340 448 :M
(\372)S
340 436 :M
(\371)S
216 432 :M
f60 sf
-.119(cat)A
292 432 :M
(v)S
216 446 :M
.301(neg)A
292 446 :M
(\320)S
216 460 :M
.202(lexical-head)A
292 460 :M
.321(\312)A
f87 sf
.585(doing)A
f60 sf
(])S
178 474 :M
.788(sem)A
211 474 :M
-.207({#1[\312]})A
178 488 :M
.514(rel)A
211 488 :M
-.166([gf\312comp])A
178 575 :M
.866(val)A
211 640 :M
f361 sf
( )S
211 640 :M
(\356)S
211 621 :M
(\357)S
211 599 :M
(\357)S
211 578 :M
(\355)S
211 556 :M
(\357)S
211 534 :M
(\357)S
211 516 :M
(\354)S
413 640 :M
( )S
413 640 :M
(\376)S
413 621 :M
(\357)S
413 599 :M
(\357)S
413 578 :M
(\375)S
413 556 :M
(\357)S
413 534 :M
(\357)S
413 516 :M
(\374)S
223 504 :M
f60 sf
-.148([rel\312[gf\312subj]],\312)A
223 562 :M
f306 sf
.5 .05( )J
223 562 :M
(\353)S
223 553 :M
(\352)S
223 536 :M
(\352)S
223 527 :M
(\351)S
328 562 :M
.5 .05( )J
328 562 :M
(\373)S
328 553 :M
(\372)S
328 536 :M
(\372)S
328 527 :M
(\371)S
230 520 :M
f60 sf
.514(rel)A
279 520 :M
-.235([gf\312obj])A
230 534 :M
.131(syn)A
279 534 :M
-.059([loc\312\320])A
230 548 :M
.788(sem)A
279 548 :M
-.14({[ref\312\277]})A
230 562 :M
.611(inherit)A
279 562 :M
f87 sf
1.339(what)A
335 543 :M
f60 sf
(,)S
223 638 :M
f361 sf
( )S
223 638 :M
(\353)S
223 626 :M
(\352)S
223 604 :M
(\352)S
223 592 :M
(\351)S
394 638 :M
( )S
394 638 :M
(\373)S
394 626 :M
(\372)S
394 604 :M
(\372)S
394 592 :M
(\371)S
232 580 :M
f60 sf
.514(rel)A
265 580 :M
-.166([gf\312comp])A
232 604 :M
.788(sem)A
265 611 :M
f222 sf
.75 .075( )J
265 611 :M
(\356)S
265 603 :M
(\355)S
265 595 :M
(\354)S
380 611 :M
.75 .075( )J
380 611 :M
(\376)S
380 603 :M
(\375)S
380 595 :M
(\374)S
269 604 :M
f60 sf
.297(#1)A
f211 sf
0 6 rm
.134 .013( )J
0 -6 rm
283 610 :M
(\353)S
283 598 :M
(\351)S
375 610 :M
( )S
375 610 :M
(\373)S
375 598 :M
(\371)S
288 595 :M
f60 sf
.483(frame)A
331 595 :M
-.993([\312])A
288 609 :M
-.165(args)A
331 609 :M
-.32({#2[\312]]})A
232 634 :M
.866(val)A
265 641 :M
f222 sf
.75 .075( )J
265 641 :M
(\356)S
265 633 :M
(\355)S
265 625 :M
(\354)S
364 641 :M
.75 .075( )J
364 641 :M
(\376)S
364 633 :M
(\375)S
364 625 :M
(\374)S
269 640 :M
f211 sf
( )S
269 640 :M
(\353)S
269 628 :M
(\351)S
359 640 :M
( )S
359 640 :M
(\373)S
359 628 :M
(\371)S
274 625 :M
f60 sf
.514(rel)A
307 625 :M
-.177([gf\312subj])A
274 639 :M
.788(sem)A
307 639 :M
-.207({#2[\312]})A
246 69.5 405 @w
246 510.5 405 @w
1 69.5 665 @w
1 69.5 665 @w
440 70 665.5 @c
1 510.5 665 @w
1 510.5 665 @w
14 69.5 651 @w
14 510.5 651 @w
endp
showpage
%%Page: 58 58
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 58 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 58)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
207 166 :M
1.241 .124(Figure 12. The WXDY Construction)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 59 59
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 59 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 59)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
143 93 :M
.131(syn)A
172 93 :M
-.114([lex\312+])A
143 132 :M
.866(val)A
172 151 :M
f306 sf
.5 .05( )J
172 151 :M
(\356)S
172 146 :M
(\357)S
172 133 :M
(\355)S
172 120 :M
(\357)S
172 116 :M
(\354)S
449 151 :M
.5 .05( )J
449 151 :M
(\376)S
449 146 :M
(\357)S
449 133 :M
(\375)S
449 120 :M
(\357)S
449 116 :M
(\374)S
181 132 :M
f60 sf
.014([intrinsic\312#1[\312]],\312\312)A
279 151 :M
f306 sf
.5 .05( )J
279 151 :M
(\353)S
279 142 :M
(\352)S
279 125 :M
(\352)S
279 116 :M
(\351)S
432 151 :M
.5 .05( )J
432 151 :M
(\373)S
432 142 :M
(\372)S
432 125 :M
(\372)S
432 116 :M
(\371)S
286 108 :M
f60 sf
.045(srs)A
314 108 :M
(\320)S
286 122 :M
-.664(gf)A
314 122 :M
.44(comp)A
286 146 :M
.866(val)A
314 153 :M
f222 sf
.75 .075( )J
314 153 :M
(\356)S
314 145 :M
(\355)S
314 137 :M
(\354)S
418 153 :M
.75 .075( )J
418 153 :M
(\376)S
418 145 :M
(\375)S
418 137 :M
(\374)S
318 152 :M
f211 sf
( )S
318 152 :M
(\353)S
318 140 :M
(\351)S
413 152 :M
( )S
413 152 :M
(\373)S
413 140 :M
(\371)S
323 137 :M
f60 sf
-.664(gf)A
380 137 :M
.413(subj)A
323 151 :M
.439(intrinsic)A
380 151 :M
-.314(#1[\312])A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
44.24 470.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
330.24 140 81.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
77.24 140.12 81 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
330.24 140 158.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
33.24 470.12 125 @w
196 338 :M
1.521 .152(Figure 13. Coinstantiation Construction)J
endp
showpage
%%Page: 60 60
%%BeginPageSetup
initializepage
(kay; page: 60 of 60)setjob
%%EndPageSetup
-30 -31 :T
gS 30 31 552 730 rC
415 45 :M
f98 sf
.149 .015(Kay and Fillmore page 60)J
72 752 :M
f60 sf
-.092(wxdy.981028.1-spce)A
109 85 :M
.492(role)A
161 85 :M
.314(head)A
109 181 :M
.367(synsem)A
161 255 :M
f361 sf
( )S
161 255 :M
(\353)S
161 239 :M
(\352)S
161 217 :M
(\352)S
161 195 :M
(\352)S
161 173 :M
(\352)S
161 151 :M
(\352)S
161 129 :M
(\352)S
161 113 :M
(\351)S
484 255 :M
( )S
484 255 :M
(\373)S
484 239 :M
(\372)S
484 217 :M
(\372)S
484 195 :M
(\372)S
484 173 :M
(\372)S
484 151 :M
(\372)S
484 129 :M
(\372)S
484 113 :M
(\371)S
170 124 :M
f60 sf
.329(rel\(ational\))A
242 143 :M
f306 sf
.5 .05( )J
242 143 :M
(\353)S
242 134 :M
(\352)S
242 117 :M
(\352)S
242 108 :M
(\351)S
415 143 :M
.5 .05( )J
415 143 :M
(\373)S
415 134 :M
(\372)S
415 117 :M
(\372)S
415 108 :M
(\371)S
249 101 :M
f60 sf
.293(g\(rammatical\)\312f\(unction\))A
396 101 :M
-.993([\312])A
249 115 :M
f317 sf
(q)S
396 115 :M
f60 sf
-.993([\312])A
249 129 :M
-.052(case)A
396 129 :M
-.993([\312])A
249 143 :M
(\312)S
170 211 :M
.439(intrinsic)A
242 255 :M
f361 sf
( )S
242 255 :M
(\353)S
242 236 :M
(\352)S
242 214 :M
(\352)S
242 192 :M
(\352)S
242 173 :M
(\351)S
465 255 :M
( )S
465 255 :M
(\373)S
465 236 :M
(\372)S
465 214 :M
(\372)S
465 192 :M
(\372)S
465 173 :M
(\371)S
251 197 :M
f60 sf
.131(syn)A
284 226 :M
f361 sf
( )S
284 226 :M
(\353)S
284 211 :M
(\352)S
284 189 :M
(\352)S
284 174 :M
(\351)S
446 226 :M
( )S
446 226 :M
(\373)S
446 211 :M
(\372)S
446 189 :M
(\372)S
446 174 :M
(\371)S
293 176 :M
f60 sf
.314(head)A
331 188 :M
f211 sf
( )S
331 188 :M
(\353)S
331 176 :M
(\352)S
331 164 :M
(\351)S
431 188 :M
( )S
431 188 :M
(\373)S
431 176 :M
(\372)S
431 164 :M
(\371)S
336 160 :M
f60 sf
.202(lexical-head)A
412 160 :M
-.993([\312])A
336 174 :M
-.119(cat)A
412 174 :M
-.993([\312])A
336 188 :M
(...)S
293 218 :M
.688(level)A
331 230 :M
f211 sf
( )S
331 230 :M
(\353)S
331 218 :M
(\352)S
331 206 :M
(\351)S
389 230 :M
( )S
389 230 :M
(\373)S
389 218 :M
(\372)S
389 206 :M
(\371)S
336 202 :M
f60 sf
.608(max)A
370 202 :M
-.993([\312])A
336 216 :M
.288(lex)A
370 216 :M
-.993([\312])A
336 230 :M
(...)S
251 244 :M
.788(sem)A
284 244 :M
-.993([\312])A
251 258 :M
(\312)S
284 258 :M
(\312)S
109 273 :M
.866(val)A
161 273 :M
({\312})S
109 287 :M
.759(phon)A
161 287 :M
.228(<\312>)A
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
.24 lw
115.24 505.12 73 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
399.24 106 73.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
219.24 106.12 73 @w
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
399.24 106 292.12 @c
-4096 -4095 -1 1 -4094 -4095 1 -4096 -4096 @a
104.24 505.12 188 @w
256 472 :M
.621 .062(\(Figure for )J
f168 sf
.665 .066(Fn. 11)J
f60 sf
<29>S
endp
showpage
%%Trailer
end
%%EOF